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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


vr.  H.  Alexander  Holmes.  :i- 


-n   «  mi  !»    M  m  -  ■«  -  «.  ^  «■  ■.  , 


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sMPErs  mm  imm. 


A    SERIES    OF    NARRATIVES,    DIALOGUES,    BIOGRAPHIES,    AND    TALES, 

FOR    THE    INSTRUCTION    AND    ENTERTAINMENT 

OF    THE    YOUNG. 


(Bnihrllisjirii  iiiitji 

NIMEROUS   AND   BEAUTIFUL   ENGRAVINGS. 


M-^.  >^^'. 


fmr^'mm,  :mmm%  "^^-^m 


THE 

^  la  i\  iii  ?*  is  js 

0I{, 

UOW  THE  STORY  BOOKS  ARE  MADE 


Tiff  hb  mririJUBM^  ■  ■  ■  ■  v  - 


■W 


7.S0709 


Entered,  according  to  an  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  fifty-five,  by 

HARPER    &    BROTHERS, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


Hl^M^ 


PREFACE. 

This  series  of  Story  Books,  though  they  are  intended  to  Ih^ 
A\Titten  in  a  simple  and  lucid  style,  so  as  to  bring  them  within  the 
comprehension  of  all,  arc  by  no  means  designed  exclusively  for 
children.  The  subjects  of  many  of  them  will  be  sucli  that  tiiey 
can  only  be  appreciated  by  minds  that  have  attained  to  some  de- 
gree of  maturity,  and  are  accustomed  to  habits  of  careful  and  pa- 
tient thought. 

The  subject  of  the  present  number,  the  great  Printing  Estab- 
lishment of  the  Harpers  in  New  York,  is  one  of  this  class ;  and 
though  I  have  endeavored  to  make  my  description  sufficiently  fidl 
in  its  character,  and  simple  in  its  details,  to  be  intelligible  to  every 
class  of  readers,  I  have  made  no  attempt  to  bring  it  down  to  the 
capacity  of  children.  The  older  and  the  more  thoughtful  of  the 
sons  and  daughters  of  a  family  may  derive  gi-eat  instruction  from 
the  perusal  of  it,  especially  if  they'are  assisted  by  the  explanations 
of  the  father  and  mother  as  they  read,  but  the  younger  ones  must 
expect  to  find  it  above  their  reach.  They  had  their  turn  in  the 
Story  of  Timboo  and  Fanny. 

I  have  taken  great  pains  to  make  all  tlie  statements  contained 
in  tlie  work  in  respect  to  all  the  structures,  niacliincs,  and  process- 


Mil  PREFACE. 

OS  described  strictly  exact,  so  that  gentlemen  in  the  interior  of  the 
country,  who  take  a  practical  interest  in  subjects  connected  with 
mechanical  science,  may  rely  on  the  correctness  and  accuracy  of 
the  information  which  tliis  account  furnishes.  In  these  efforts  I 
have  been  greatly  assisted  by  the  various  gentlemen  who  have  had 
the  charge  of  tlie  several  portions  of  the  work  of  constructing  the 
edifice,  as  well  as  those  who  are  now  employed  as  overseers  in  the 
different  processes  of  manufacture.  I  have  been  especially  indebt- 
ed to  tlie  following  named  persons  not  only  for  information  ob- 
tained from  them,  in  the  first  instance,  in  respect  to  the  various 
branches  to  which  their  responsibility  extends,  but  also  for  their 
assistance  in  the  careful  revision  of  my  descriptions  and  state- 
ments after  they  were  %vritten  : 

James  Bogardus,  Engineer,  constructor  of  the  iron  front  of  the 
buildino;. 

John  B.  Corlies,  Architect  and  Builder. 

James  L.  Jackson,  designer  and  manufactiu-er  of  the  iron  col- 
umns and  girders. 

AiiRAi^i  S.  Hewitt,  of  the  firm  of  Cooper  &  HcAvitt,  manufac- 
turers of  the  iron  beams. 


C  0  N  T  E  N  T  S. 


CIIAPTEI!  rAUK 

I.     UENKRAI,    STRUCTURE    OF    THE    EDIFICE     13 

II.    THE    FIRE-PROOF    FLOORS 25 

III.     MANUF.tCTURE    OF    THE    IRON    BEA.MS 32 

IV.    INTERIOR    OF    THE    CI.IFF    STREET    HUll.DINU     41 

V.     THE     COURT-YARD 5W 

VI.    CO.M  POSITION •''■I 

VII.     PROOFS    AND    CORRECTINO ^'^ 

VIII.    TYPE-FOUNDING     74 

IX.    MOULDS    FOR    TYPK-FOUNDINO 85 

X.    ELECTROTYPINU 'Jfi 

XI.     ENGRAVINOS '"3 

XII.    THE    PRESS 1  !•* 

XIU.     DUYINO    AND     PKESSINO    THE     SHEETS 123 

XIV.    FORWARDING 130 

XV.    MARBLING 

XVI.    FINISHING 


XVII.    THE    DISTRIBUTION 


135 
115 


156 


E  ]\  G  R  A  V  I  xN  G  S. 


PAdE 

FRANKLIN    SQUARE    FRONT FrontlSpUCt. 

THE    COUNTING-ROOM    16 

THE    PLAN 21 

VIEW    OF    CLIFF    STREET    FRONT 21 

MECHANISM    OF    THE    FLOORS 28 

SECTIONAL    VIEW    OF    THE    CLIFF    STREET    BUILDING 42 

INTERIOR    OF    THE    COURT-YARD SI 

TYPE    OF    A    LETTER    51 

TYPES    SET    UP 55 

COMPOSING-STICK 56 

THE    CASE 56 

FRANKLIN 63 

FORMS     66 

THE    ROLLER    68 

THE    BALLS 68 

CASTING 77 

THE    JET 79 

THE    DRESSER 83 

THE    M  ATRICE 86 

THE    PUNCHES 87 

SPECIMEN    OF    SCRIPT    TYPE 93 

SPECIMENS    OF    BORDERS    AND   FANCY    TYPE 94 

BLOCKING    THE    PLATE 97 

THE    VAULTS    101 

COPPER-PLATE    PRINTING    105 

THE    DESIGN 109 

THE     STUDIO 112 

THE    HAND-PRESS 116 


XU  ENGKAVINGS. 

PAGE 

franklin's  press 118 

the  power-press 120 

the  drying-room 125 

hydraulic  presses 126 

stabbing 131 

the  sawing  machine 132 

the  cutting  machine 134 

the  marbling-room 136 

sprinkling  the  colors 138 

burnishing 14:3 

GILDING 147 

EMBOSSING    PRESSES 151 

THE    FINISHING-ROOM 155 

THE    STOCK-ROOM 157 

THE    MAGAZINE    CORNER 159 


HARPER  E8TA]]LISI[)[E.\T. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  STKUCTUKE  OF  TllK   j:i)lFl(;i: 


Situation  ortlie  Harper  Buildings.  The  Franklin  Square  Oonl. 

rpill']  Iniildings  of  tlie  TTarper  I'^staLlislinioiit  arc  situatod  in  Now 
-*-  York,  on  Clitt"  iStrect  and  Franklin  Square.  Tlic  cstaLlish- 
nicnt  covers  about  half  an  acre  of  gi'ound,  and  consists  chiefly  of 
two  Llocks  of  buildings,  one  fronting  on  Cliff  Street,  and  tlie  oiIkm- 
fronting  on  Franklin  Sfjuarc,  ^vitli  a  court  between.  The  two 
blocks  of  buildings  are  united,  and  made,  as  it  'were,  one,  by  a  se- 
ries of  iron  bridges  connectiufr  the  various  stories  of  the  two  blocks 
with  each  other  and  with  a  large  circular  tower  in  the  court,  which 
contains  the  common  stairway  for  the  "whole  establishment.  The 
edifice  is  constructed  almost  exclusively  of  stone,  brick,  and  iron, 
and  is  as  perfectly  fire-proof  as  the  present  state  of  architectural 
science  and  art  can  make  it. 

The  frontispiece  represents  that  jiortion  of  tlie  l)iiildiiig  wliieli 
fronts  on  Franklin  S(iiiare.  Jt  is  five  stories  in  height,  with  a 
cellar  and  sub-eellar  l»elow,  making  seven  floors  in  all.  The  front 
is  built  wliollv  of  iron.  It  consists  in  eacli  story  of  twenty-one 
Corinthian   (dluiiiiis,  with  loftv  windows  fllliiiij:  tin;  intereoluiniii- 


14  GENERAL   STRUCTUBE   OF   THE    EDIFICE. 

Statues.  The  court-yard.  Cellars.  Stores. 

ations.     Each  range  of  columns  supports  the  bases  of  the  range 
above,  and  thus  they  rise,  tier  above  tier,  to  the  topmost  story. 

Over  the  entrance-door  is  a  full  length  statue  of  Benjamin 
Franklin  in  iron.  Between  the  windows  of  the  fifth  story,  too,  is 
a  row  of  smaller  statues  of  Washington,  Franklin,  and  Jefferson. 
Above  them  is  the  cornice  of  the  roof,  supported  by  massive  truss- 
es. There  is  no  entrance  in  the  front  of  the  building  for  the  re- 
ceipt and  dehvery  of  goods.  The  place  for  this  business  is  in  the 
court-yard  between  the  two  buildings,  which  is  entered  by  a  pas- 
sage-way from  Cliff  Street.  Thus  the  front  of  the  building  is  nev- 
er encumbered  witli  carts  or  drays  coming  to  or  leaving  the  estab- 
lishment, nor  are  the  sidewalks  obstructed  Avith  bundles  of  paper 
or  boxes  of  books. 

There  are  two  cellars  under  this  block,  one  of  which  is,  howev- 
er, entirely  out  of  ground  on  the  back  side,  where  it  fronts  the 
court-yard.  The  depth  of  the  foundation  of  the  edifice  may  be  in- 
feiTcd  from  the  fact  that  the  floor  of  the  lowermost  cellar  is  twen- 
ty-two feet  below  the  sidewalk.  A  large  portion  of  the  space  in 
these  cellars  is  used  for  the  storage  of  paper.  This  paper  is  taken 
across,  as  fast  as  it  is  wanted,  into  the  lower  stories  of  the  build- 
ing on  Cliff  Street  by  a  subterranean  railway  under  the  court. 
This  will  be  more  particularly  explained  by-and-by,  when  we  come 
to  the  engraving  of  the  court-yard. 

There  are  no  stah'cases  leading  from  one  story  to  another  in  ei- 
ther of  the  buildings  within  the  walls,  but  there  is  one  common 
staircase  for  the  whole  establishment  in  the  round  tower  already . 
mentioned,  Avliicli  has  been  built  for  the  pui"pose  in  the  coiut-yard. 


GENERAL    STKIJCTURE    OF   THE    EDIFICE.  15 

No  staircases  within  the  buildings.  The  counting-room. 

Thus  the  several  floors  of  the  Luikling.s  are  continuous  and  entire 
tliroughout.  This  construction  is  adopted  as  a  safeguard  against 
iire ;  for,  as  there  are  no  openings  through  the  floors,  and  as  the 
floors  tliemselves  are  Luilt  of  brick  and  iron,  and  are  thus  coni- 
])letely  flre-proof,  no  fire  can  be  communicated  througli  them  in 
any  way.  The  staircase  in  the  tower  is  connected  witli  cacli 
story  of  both  buildings  by  iron  bridges,  and  is  found  to  be  amply 
sufficient  for  all  purpo.ses.  This,  also,  will  be  particularly  ex- 
plained when  Ave  come  to  the  hi.story  of  the  court-yard. 

Thus,  with  the  exception  of  the  gi-eat  staircase  ascending  from 
tlie  entrance-door  in  front  to  the  counting-room,  which  will  present- 
ly be  described,  all  the  floors  are  continuous  throughout — of  solid 
brick  and  iron — and  thus  the  spread  of  fire  among  the  contents  of 
the  buildings  from  floor  to  floor  is  rendered  impo.^sible.  There  is, 
indeed,  nothing  but  the  contents  of  the  buildings  that  can  burn, 
for  the  edifices  themselves  are  constructed,  almost  without  excej)- 
tion,  of  materials  entirely  incombustible. 

The  height  of  the  stories,  and  the  general  magnitude  of  the  scale 
on  which  the  whole  building  is  constructed,  may  be  appreciated  by 
comparing  the  edifice  with  the  ordinary  four  and  five  story  build- 
ings on  each  side  of  it  in  the  engraving.  The  general  counting- 
room  is  in  the  centre  of  the  building  on  this  front,  in  the  first  story 
above  the  principal  basement.  The  access  to  it  is  by  a  very  broad 
staircase — twelve  feet  wide — ascending  from  the  centre  door.  ^  ou 
will  see  the  top  of  this  staircase,  and  the  interior  of  the  great  count- 
ing-room into  which  it  opens,  in  the  engravijig  on  the  next  page, 
liesidcs  the  counting-room,  this  building  contains  the.  utock  and 


16 


GENERAL   STRUCTUKE   OP   THE   EDIFICE 


View  or  the  interior  of  the  counting-room. 


GENEKAL    STRirCTURE    OF    THE    EDIFICE.  17 

View  or  the  counting-room.  The  Tour  brothers  Harper. 

stores  of  the  cstablisliment,  consisting  of  vast  quantities  of  pa- 
per and  otliex*  materials  in  the  cellars  antl  on  the  lower  floors,  and 
books  by  hundreds  of  thousands  in  the  various  stages  of  manufac- 
turing stock  in  the  stories  above.  The  extent  and  the  arrange- 
ment of  these  vast  magazines  will  be  hereafter  described. 

The  engraving  on  the  opposite  page  represents  the  counting- 
room.  The  view  is  taken  from  the  back  side  of  the  room,  looking 
forward.  The  staircase  is  seen  in  the  centre,  coming  up  from  the 
great  door  on  the  Franklin  Scjuare  front,  as  seen  in  the  frontispiece. 
We  see  a  person  just  ascending  the  stairs,  near  the  top.  The  tliree 
other  sides  of  the  opening  through  which  the  stairs  come  up  arc 
inclosed  by  a  strong  and  ornamental  balustrade. 

In  the  background  of  the  picture,  which  represents,  of  course, 
the  front  side  of  the  room,  there  is  a  rectangular  space,  about  forty 
feet  by  fifteen,  inclosed  by  a  railing,  which  may  be  considered  the 
counting-room  proper-.  Here  are  the  desks  and  seats  of  the  pro- 
prietors of  the  establishment,  with  sofas  and  chairs  along  the  sides 
of  the  inclosure  for  visitors,  or  persons  having  business  with  the 
proprietors  personally.  This  area  is  the  constant  resort  of  book- 
sellers, authors,  artists,  travelers,  and  persons  of  distinction  from 
every  part  of  the  United  States,  and,  indeed,  from  all  (puirtcrs  o( 
the  world.  The  four  brothers  Harper,  the  original  founders  and 
present  proprietors  of  the  establii^hment,  arc  almost  always  to  be 
seen  here,  engaged  in  their  various  duties,  such  as  receiving  re- 
ports and  listening  to  inquiries  from  the  various  mechanical  de- 
partments, issuing  orders,  answering  questions,  holding  consulta- 
tions, considering  new  projects,  waiting  upon  authors  who  come 
1(1  1> 


18  GENERAL   STRUCTURE   OF   THE    EDIFICE. 

Business  of  the  counting-room.  Tiie  furnishing  of  it. 

to  offer  inaniiscripts,  and  artists  who  bring  in  drawings  or  engrav- 
ings, and  in  other  like  occupations.  It  is  an  animated  and  busy 
scene,  though  the  arrangements  are  so  complete  and  convenient, 
and  the  space  so  ample,  that  there  is  no  bustle  or  confusion.  A 
Vast  deal  of  very  important  business  is  transacted  here,  and  often 
by  men  of  high  distinction  both  in  the  literary  and  business  world ; 
but  it  is  transacted  with  few  words,  and  in  a  very  prompt  and  de- 
cisive, though  very  quiet  manner. 

Without  the  railing,  on  each  side  of  the  staircase,  are  several 
desks.  Four  of  these  are  seen  in  the  engraving.  They  are  placed 
so  as  to  face  toward  the  centre  of  the  room.  They  are  occupied 
for  the  various  departments  connected  with  the  book-keeping  and 
accounts,  and  for  business  connected  with  the  city  trade.  Beyond 
these,  and  still  nearer  to  the  foreground,  are  other  appointments  and 
fixtures.  On  the  right  are  cases  for  exhibiting  samples  of  books. 
There  are  two  of  these  cases  in  different  positions.  One  stands 
with  its  front  toward  us,  showing  us  the  books  which  it  contains. 
The  other  has  its  back  toward  us.  We  see  a  lady  and  two  gen- 
tlemen standing  by  it,  examining  the  books.  A  clerk  stands  near 
one  of  the  gentlemen,  and  seems  to  be  conversing  with  him.  On 
the  left  we  see  a  large  iron  safe. 

The  eases  above  referred  to  are  only  intended  for  the  purpose 
of  showing  specimens  of  the  books  which  the  house  publish,  as  a 
guide  to  booksellers  and  others  in  making  up  their  orders ;  for 
very  little  retail  business  is  done  at  this  establishment — none,  in 
fact,  except  as  a  matter  of  convenience  and  courtesy  to  individual 
purchasers.      The  business  of  the  house  is  almost  exclusively  the 


IIENERAL    STRUCTURE    OF  THE    EDIFICE.  19 

Immense  quantities  of  books  in  store.  The  biiM. 

puLlishing  of  books  to  be  sold  in  quantities  to  booksellers.  The 
general  stock,  therefore,  does  not  consist  of  individual  copies  of 
books  arranged  on  shelves  as  in  a  library,  as  is  usual  in  ordinary 
book-stores,  but  of  quantities  packed  in  bins,  with  specimens  only 
in  the  show-cases  below.  We  see  a  portion  of  these  bins  on  wliat 
seems  to  be  the  side  of  the  room  on  the  right.  It  is  not  really 
the  side  of  the  room,  however,  Avhich  appears  in  tlie  engraving, 
but  only  a  double  block  or  tier  of  bins  built  up  from  the  floor  to 
the  ceiling,  to  furnish  receptacles  for  the  books.  This  bluck  of 
bins  is  two  stories  high,  as  seen  in  the  engraving.  Access  to  the 
upper  story  is  obtained  by  means  of  a  gallery,  which  extends  along 
the  whole  length  of  the  block.  AVc  see  men  upon  this  gallery 
bringing  books  down  to  be  packed  and  sent  away.  There  are  two 
openings  like  wide  doonvays  through  this  construction  to  another 
part  of  the  room,  which  is  suiTOundcd  on  all  sides  by  bins.  On 
the  left-hand  side  of  the  room  the  an-angement  is  the  same,  though 
it  is  not  shown  in  the  engraving.  Indeed,  only  about  three  quar- 
ters of  the  length  of  the  apartment  itself  is  shown,  there  being  the 
same  space  between  the  range  of  columns  on  the  left  and  the  range 
of  bins  forming  the  partition,  that  there  is  on  the  right,  thougii 
tliis  space  in  the  engraving  is  cut  off  on  the  left  side.  This  space 
is  twenty  feet,  and  the  wiiolc  length  of  the  part  of  this  floor  of  the 
building  Avhich  is  inclosed  between  the  two  ranges  of  bins  is  eigh- 
ty feet.  The  depth  of  the  apartment  from  front  to  back  is  seven- 
ty-iive  feet.  Beyond,  on  both  sides,  arc  wings,  which  are  entered 
through  the  openings  in  the  ranges  of  bins  above  described,  and 
which  extend,  including  tlie  depth  of  the  l»ins,  about  twenty-five 


20  GENKKAi.    STJilJCTlJKE    UF    T1IJ-:    EDIFICE. 


The  sales-room.  Boxes  and  bundles.  The  plan. 

feet  farther,  making  the  whole  front  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet. 
Tliere  are  four  openings  leading  to  these  wings,  two  on  each  side. 
The  number  of  bins  on  both  sides  of  tliis  great  hall,  including 
those  within  the  two  inner  compartments,  is  about  one  thousand, 
and  each  one  is  of  sufficient  capacity  to  hold  nearly  one  thousand 
ordinary  duodecimo  volumes. 

The  back  part  of  the  room,  a  small  portion  of  which  only  is 
seen  in  the  foreground  of  the  engi'aving,  is  occupied  for  the  pm-pose 
of  filling  orders  for  books,  packing  the  books  in  boxes  and  bundles, 
mailing  the  subscribers'  copies  of  the  Magazine  and  Story  Books, 
keeping  sundry  accounts,  and  other  similar  purposes.  It  is  from 
this  place  that  the  vast  issues  from  the  establishment  are  daily 
made.  The  boxes  and  bundles  are  wheeled,  when  made  up,  out 
through  a  door  in  the  rear  of  this  part  of  the  room,  which  conducts 
across  the  court  by  an  iron  bridge  to  the  hoist-way,  where  tlie 
steam-engine  takes  them,  and  lets  them  gently  doAvn  to  the  cart  or 
wagon  waiting  in  the  court  below.  We  shall  see  the  arrangement 
of  this  mechanism  more  particularly  when  we  come  to  the  court. 
But  the  relative  position  of  tlie  packing-rooms,  the  bridge,  and  the 
hoisting,  will  be  seen  on  the  plan  on  the  adjoining  page. 

Tlie  plan  represents  the  first  or  principal  floor  of  each  building, 
namely,  the  publishing  and  counting-rooms  of  the  Franklin  Square 
building,  and  the  great  press-room  in  the  Cliff  Street  building. 
The  former  is  on  the  right,  as  seen  in  the  engraving ;  the  other 
on  the  left. 

At  the  extreme  right  of  the  Franklin  Square  room  is  seen  the 
counting-room,  between  the  head  of  the  staircase  and  the  front  of 


GENERAL   STKUCTURE   OF   TIIK    EDIFICE. 


21 


22  GENERAL   STRUCTURE    OF   THE    EDIFICE. 

General  arrangements  of  the  sales-room. 

the  Luilcling.  The  desks  and  other  furniture  arc  represented  on 
the  phm.  There  are  two  entrances  to  the  inclosurc,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  great  staircase,  and  the  space  itself  is  only  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  apartment  by  a  railing,  as  shown  in  the  per- 
spective view  on  a  previous  page. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  staircase,  toward  the  centre  of  the 
apartment,  is  the  area  marked  C,  which  is  appropriated  to  the 
city  trade.  It  is  veiy  convenient  for  this  purpose,  being  easily  ac- 
cessible from  the  entrance  to  the  building.  Tlie  area  is  partially 
inclosed  by  desks,  safes,  counters  or  cases  for  the  exhibition  of 
samples  of  books,  and  other  similar  furniture.  These  objects  are 
represented  in  the  plan,  but  they  can  be  seen  still  more  distinctly 
in  the  perspective  view. 

At  the  back  side  of  the  room,  near  the  centre,  i*  the  area  mark- 
ed F,  devoted  to  the  business  of  receiving  and  answering  foreign 
orders.  Here  are  large  tables  for  assembling  and  packing  books, 
and  desks  for  keeping  the  accounts,  and  trucks  for  drawing  away 
the  boxes  and  packages,  when  they  are  made  up,  to  the  door  lead- 
ing to  the  hoist-way,  which  is  close  at  hand.  There  are  two  doors, 
indeed,  leading  to  the  court,  near  this  part  of  the  building.  One 
opens  upon  the  bridge  that  conducts  to  the  hoist-way,  the  other 
to  the  one  that  leads  to  the  staircase  in  the  round  tower,  and  thus 
to  all  parts  of  the  Cliff  Street  building.  These  two  bridges  are 
seen  in  the  plan. 

To  the  right  of  the  space  devoted  to  the  foreign  trade,  looking 
toward  the  back  side  of  the  room,  is  another  inclosure,  marked 
!M  on  the  plan,  which  is  appropriated  to  the  work  of  mailing  peri- 


GENERAL    STRUCTURK    OF   THE    EDIFICE.  23 

Ranges  or  bins.  Plan  ortbe  court.  The  great  press-room. 


odlcaLs.  The  great  busines.s  at  this  place  i.s,  of  course,  the  mail- 
ing of  tlie  subscribers'  copies  of  tlie  ^lagazine. 

On  tlie  north  and  south  sides  of  the  apartment  may  be  seen  the 
ranges  of  bins,  marked  B,  I>,  B  on  the  plan,  surrounding  two  in- 
elosures  of  the  form  of  Avings.  These  bins  consist  of  ran<;e3  of 
very  strong  shelving,  about  five  feet  deep,  separated  by  a  solid 
brick  Avail,  which  forms  the  back  of  the  rows  of  bins.  Tlie  parti- 
tions extend  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling.  The  upper  tiers  are 
reached  by  galleries,  as  seen  in  the  perspective  aIcw.  The  oi)en 
court,  marked  in  the  plan,  is  accessible  by  carts  through  an  arched 
passage-way  in  Cliff  Street.  This  passage-way  is  not  shown  on 
this  plan,  being  on  the  story  below  the  one  here  represented.  The 
two  Avails  inclosing  it  are,  hoAvever,  seen  at  the  end  of  the  Cliif 
Street  building.  The  position  of  tAVO  of  the  bridges,  the  hoist- 
Avay,  H,  the  circular  tower,  the  great  square  chimney,  <?,  as  Avell  as 
of  the  glass  roof  that  covers  the  boiler-room,  are  shoAvn  in  the  plan. 
A  perspective  vicAV  of  this  court-yard,  Avith  a  more  full  account  of 
the  various  objects  Avhich  it  contains,  Avill  be  given  in  a  subsequent 
chapter. 

The  plan  shoAvs  the  an-angement  of  the  presses  in  the  gre^it 
press-room  of  the  Cliff  Street  building.  This  room  is  on  tlie  prin- 
cipal story,  that  is,  the  first  above  the  basement.  The  otiier  floors 
of  this  building  are  all  appropriated  to  flu;  various  mechanical  0|>- 
crations  connected  Avith  tlie  printing  and  binding  of  books.  They 
Avill  be  d(fscribed  hereafter.  In  the  mean  time,  a  \'iew  of  the  front 
of  this  portion  of  the  edifice  is  given  on  tlu^  next  page.  Tiie  0|)cn- 
inir  Avhere  Ave  sec  the  cart  froinir  in  is  liic  rntran't*  to  the  court. 


24 


GENERAL   STUUCTUliE   OF   THE   EDIFICE. 


View  ot  the  front  on  Cliff  Street. 


Illi 


fi!ii^-  w 


VIEW    OF    THE    CLIFF    STREET    FRONT. 


THE    FIKE-PKUUF    FLOOltS.  25 


Difficulty  of  making  large  baildings  flre-proof. 


(jlLUn^KR  11. 

THE    FIRE-PROOF    FLOORS. 

The  great  difficulty  in  the  construction  of  fire-proof  buildings 
is  the  Avork  of  making  the  floors.  Walls  may  easily  be  built  of 
brick  or  stone,  but  wood  alone  has  been  considered  hitherto,  until 
Avithin  comparatively  a  short  time,  almost  essential  for  floors ; 
since  for  floors,  which  must  necessarily,  to  so  great  an  extent,  sus- 
tain themselves,  with  as  little  support  as  possible  from  below,  there 
is  required  a  degree  of  strength  and  lightness  combined  whicli  has 
hitherto  been  found  to  exist  in  no  other  material. 

It  is  true  that  architects  have  long  been  accustomed  to  build 
floors  of  brick  or  stone  by  supporting  them  on  arches,  which  rest 
on  columns  or  walls  in  the  room  below ;  but  these  arches,  on  any 
mode  of  construction  heretofore  adopted — at  least  until  within  a 
few  years — have  rcrpiired  columns  or  walls  to  supj)ort  them  so 
massive  and  solid,  that  the  room  below  was  necessarily  encumber- 
ed with  obstructions,  and  made,  indeed,  almost  useless,  in  order  to 
furnish  support  for  tlie  floors  of  the  rooms  above.  We  see  this 
construction  in  the  basement  stories  of  tlie  old  and  central  portions 
of  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  the  New  York  Exchange,  and  in 
such  buildings  as  the  Pantheon  in  Paris.  In  all  these  and  simi- 
lar buildings,  the  basement  story  is  rendered  dark,  and  giiwmy, 
and  dungeon-like  by  the  immense  number  and  massive  fonns  ot 
tlie  walls,  piers,  columns,  and  groined  and  vaulted  arches,  necessary 


26  THE    FIRE-PKOOF    FLOORS. 

Floors  of  masonry  in  churches.  Uequirements  of  modern  buildings. 

to  support  the  floor  of  the  principal  story  above.  Then,  again, 
above  this  principal  story,  in  such  buildings,  there  could  be  usual- 
ly nothing ;  for  the  rooms  in  it,  if  large,  as  in  most  cases  they 
nuist  necessarily  be,  could  only  be  kept  free  from  obstructions  sim- 
ilar to  those  below  by  some  vast  roof  or  dome  for  a  covering,  con- 
structed at  great  expense,  and  rising  necessarily  so  high  as  to  pre- 
clude the  jDOSsibility  of  having  any  useful  apartments  above  it. 

All  this,  however,  was  of  no  very  serious  consequence  in  the 
case  of  churches,  and  other  similar  structures,  where  the  dungeon- 
like basement  might  be  used  as  a  crypt  for  tombs  and  other  such 
purposes,  and  where,  also,  the  very  nature  of  the  edifice  required 
that  all  tlie  space  above  the  principal  floor  should  be  occupied  as 
one  story.  It  was  very  different,  however,  with  such  buildings  as 
are  required  for  the  practical  purposes  of  modern  mechanical  arts. 
In  these  cases,  what  is  necessaiy  is  to  di\'ide  the  whole  height  of 
the  building — fifty  or  eighty  feet,  perhaps — into  many  distinct  sto- 
ries by  floors  made  as  thin  as  possible,  so  as  to  economize  space, 
and  each  self-sustaining,  so  as  not  to  encumber  the  story  below  it 
with  supports.  To  do  this  with  wood  has  been  easy.  But  wood 
is  highly  combustible.  How  to  do  it  with  any  incombustible  ma- 
terial has  long  been  a  great  desideratum.  The  object  was  at  length 
finally  accomplished,  and  the  first  successful  construction  by  the 
new  method,  as  at  length  perfected,  is  the  edifice  we  are  describing. 
Indeed,  it  was  in  the  construction  of  this  edifice  that  the  method 
was  perfected. 

If  the  reader  will  turn  back  to  the  eno;ra\-ino*  of  the  countino;- 
room  in  page  16,  and  look  up  to  the  ceiling,  lie  will  readily  under- 


THE    FIRE-lMtOOF    FLOORS.  27 

General  arrangement  of  the  columns  and  girders. 

stand  the  mechanism  of  these  floors,  for  the  whole  structure  is  there 
almost  entirely  exposed  to  view.  You  observe  three  rows  of  col- 
umns extending  through  the  room  from  front  to  back.  These 
columns  support  a  range  of  ornamental  girders,  the  mechanism  of 
which  will  be  hereafter  explained.  Each  one  is  essentially  a  cast 
iron  arch,  the  lower  ends  of  which  are  connected  by  a  rod  of  wrouglit 
iron.  The  fonn  of  it  may  be  likened  to  a  bow  of  cast  iron,  with  a 
wrouglit  iron  string.  Upon  the  girders,  and  extending  from  one 
row  of  pillars  to  the  other,  there  rest  the  ends  of  a  range  of  wrotuj/it 
iron  beams.  The  double  lines  seen  in  the  engraving  in  the  ceiling, 
runnino;  from  left  to  right,  from  one  ranjje  of  columns  to  another, 
represent  the  lower  edges  of  these  beams.  The  beams  themselves, 
by  means  of  broad  flanges  wTouglit  on  the  lower  side  of  them,  sup- 
port a  series  of  flat  brick  arches,  which  extend  from  one  to  another 
of  them,  and  thus  furnish  a  continued  bearing  for  the  flooring 
above.  The  upper  surface  of  the  arches,  when  the  masonry  was 
completed,  was  leveled  by  tilling  up  the  spandrels  with  grouting, 
strips  for  nailing  the  floor-boards  to  having  been  previously  laid 
for  the  purpose,  and  then  the  whole  was  covered  witli  a  wootlen 
floor. 

Thus  tlie  whole  structure  consists  simply  of  a  series  of  long, 
narrow,  flat  brick  arches,  supported  by  wrought  iron  beams,  tliti 
ends  of  the  beams  being  supported  in  their  turn  by  girders  of 
wrought  and  cast  iron,  and  these  by  a  range  of  cast  iron  columns, 
supported  by  a  similar  range  in  the  story  below. 

The  whole  system  is  accurately  represented  in  tiio  following 
drawincr. 


28 


THE    FIRE-PROOF   FLOORS. 


Explanation  of  the  mechanism  of  the  fire-proof  floors. 


MECHANISM   OF  THE   FLOORS. 


The  round  rod  connecting  the  ends  of  the  girders  is  the  tension- 
rod.  It  is  of  wrought  iron.  It  acts  as  a  tie-beam  to  prevent  the 
two  ends  of  the  girder  from  spreading  by  the  pressure  of  the 
weight  on  the  arches  above.  These  rods  are  two  and  a  half  inches 
in  diameter.  The  whole  mass  of  iron  lying  between  the  tension- 
rod  and  the  range  of  arches  above  forms  the  body  of  the  girder, 
and  is  cast  in  two  parts,  one  for  each  side,  the  line  of  division  be- 
ing at  the  centre.  These  parts  correspond  in  their  function  to  the 
rafters  of  a  roof,  while  the  tension-rod  answers  to  the  tie-beam. 
The  tendency  of  the  weight  resting  on  the  floors  above  is  to  crowd 
ti)e  centre  ends  to£retlier,  and  to  force  tlie  lower  ends  of  the  ffirrl- 


THE    FlKE-PKO<JF    FI^JOKS.  2ft 


Operation  and  effect  of  the  tension-rods.  (imaniented  pattern  of  the  girders 


er  apart,  thus  bringing  a  heavy  lateral  strain  upon  the  tension-rod. 
Indeed,  it  is  on  the  power  of  the  tension-rod  to  resist  this  strain 
that  the  whole  security  of  the  structure  depends. 

Were  it  not  for  the  action  of  these  tension-rods,  the  lateral 
tlirust,  as  it  is  termed,  of  the  girders — that  is,  the  tendency  to 
spread  at  the  base,  in  consequence  of  the  pressure  of  tlie  weiglit 
above,  would  come  upon  the  heads  of  the  columns,  and  tlienct; 
would  be  conmiunicated  from  girder  to  girder  to  the  sides  or  ends 
of  the  building,  being  increased  in  its  passage  by  the  lateral  thrust 
of  all  the  girders  in  the  line.  This  would  produce  a  pressuni 
against  the  walls  of  the  building  wliich  it  Avould  require  an  enor- 
mous thickness  of  the  walls  to  resist.  As  it  is,  each  tension-rod 
counteracts  the  lateral  thrust  of  its  own  girder,  and  thus  every 
tiling  is  independent  and  self-sustaining. 

The  cast  iron  part  of  tiie  girder  appears  somewhat  complicated 
in  its  form,  but  it  is  very  simple  in  its  functions,  wliich  is,  in  fact, 
precisely  that  of  a  pair  of  rafters  in  a  common  roof.  As  to  its 
form,  any  intelligent  mechanic  whose  attention  may  be  attracte<l 
to  this  drawing  will  observe  tliat  the  leading  outlines  of  the  form 
are.  determined  by  the  necessity  of  increasing  the  strength  and 
thickness  of  the  iron  in  those  parts  of  the  girder  where  the  gre;it 
strains  would  come.  The  pattern  is  ornamented,  too,  with  great 
judgment  and  taste.  These  ornaments  are,  on  the  whole,  not  ex- 
pensive, since,  as  the  girders  are  cast,  and  a  great  numlM-r  an*  tiius 
formed  from  one  pattern,  the  expense  of  carving  the  pattern  is 
widely  distributed. 

The  girders  are  of  different  sizes  in  ditrcrent  parts  of  the  Imilt!- 


30  THE    FlJtE-PKOOF    FLOOKS. 

Construction  of  the  arches.  They  were  laid  dry  and  grouted. 

ings,  on  account  of  the  different  distances  of  the  ranges  of  columns 
that  support  them.  Thej  vary  from  five  hundred  and  forty  pounds 
to  eight  hundred  and  sixty  each  for  tlie  cast  iron  part.  The  ten- 
sion-rods weigh  about  two  hundred  and  forty  pounds  each. 

But  let  us  now  return  to  the  drawing.  Above  the  girders,  and 
resting  upon  the  iron  beams,  the  ends  of  which  are  seen  represent- 
ed black  in  the  drawing,  are  the  brick  arches.  These  arches  are 
about  four  feet  span,  that  being  the  distance  of  the  beams  from 
each  other,  and  are  four  inches  thick.  They  extend,  of  course,  in 
length,  from  one  range  of  columns  to  another,  usually  from  eight- 
een to  twenty  feet.  The  form  of  the  beams  is  seen  in  the  section 
shown  in  the  engraving.  The  ends  rest  in  chairs,  which  are  cast 
upon  the  upper  side  of  the  girder.  The  form  and  position  of  these 
chairs,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  ends  of  the  beams  rest  in 
them,  is  also  shown  in  the  engraving. 

In  building  the  arches,  the  bricks  were  not  laid  in  mortar,  but 
were  placed  in  their  positions  dry,  and  then  grouted  with  hydraulic 
cement.*  For  this  purpose,  water-tight  centres  were  made  to  sup- 
port the  bricks  below  while  the  arch  was  in  process  of  building, 
and  then  the  grouting  was  poured  between  the  bricks.  When  the 
arches  were  completed,  the  spandrels  were  filled  up  with  concrete 
to  the  level  of  the  crown  of  the  arch,  and  then  a  floor  of  naiTow 
yellow-pine  plank,  one  inch  and  a  quarter  thick,  was  laid  over  the 
whole.     The  planks  of  the  floor  are  tongued  and  grooved  together, 

*  Grouting  is  the  process  of  pouring  liquid  mortar  into  a  mass  of  masonry  pre- 
viously laid  dry,  so  as  to  fill  the  interstices,  and  to  cement  the  whole  into  one  solid 
mass 


Tin:    FlIiK-l'Knui'    Fl-OoKS.  ;{ ) 


The  floors.  Object  of  the  plank  lining.  Great  weight  on  (be  doora. 

and  blind-nailed,  in  the  Lest  manner,  to  strips  of  wood  laid  previ- 
ou.slj  in  the  concrete.  The  ends  of  these  strips  are  seen  in  the 
drawing,  by  the  side  of  the  ends  of  tlie  iron  beams.  They  art- 
dovetailed  into  the  concrete,  to  prevent  tlie  possibility  of  their  ris- 

The  floors  are  thus  lined  with  wood,  witli  a  view  to  the  health 
and  comfort  of  the  persons  employed  in  the  establisiunent.      A 

wooden  surface  is  found  to  be  nmch  more  convenient  and  ajn-eea- 

o 

ble  to  the  tread  than  any  that  can  be  formed  of  masonry  or  metal. 
A  siu-face  of  brick  or  stone,  too,  by  keeping  the  feet  cold,  exerts  an 
injurious  influence  on  the  health,  and  makes  the  persons  who  use 
it,  especially  if  they  sit  much  at  their  Avork,  always  uncomfortable. 
These  plank  floors  may,  indeed,  be  considered  as  a  wooden  carj)et 
laid  over  the  brick  floors. 

It  was  necessary  that  the  floors  for  an  edifice  destined  to  such 
purposes  as  this  should  pos.sess  great  strength.  In  one  room,  for 
example,  the  floor  is  loaded  with  a  weight  of  07ie  Aundred  and 
ffty  tons  of  2'>resses.  In  the  paper-room  the  weiglit  is  still  great- 
er, there  being  sometimes  nearly  twenty  tons  of  paper  on  a  space 
ten  feet  square.  Paper,  when  lying  in  compact  masses,  is  exceed- 
ingly heavy.  It  weighs  about  tliirty-five  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot. 
The  floor.s,  however,  are  calculated  to  bear  a  burden  of  from  three 
liundred  to  five  hundred  pounds  to  the  square  foot ;  that  is,  they 
would  be  probably  safe  for  five  hundred,  but  are  absolutely  certawi 
for  three  hundred.  This  would  allow  of  covering  the  floor  all  over 
with  stacks  of  paper  ten  feet  higli,  or  to  fill  the  room  full  of  men 
as  close  as  tliey  could  stand,  ///  tfu-cr,  or  faur  tiirs,  itm-  ovrr  f/ir 


32  MANUFACTURE  OF  THE  IRON  BEAMS. 

Statistics  of  the  fire-proof  flooring.  Manufacture  of  the  beams. 

oilier.     Indeed,  some  engineers  have  considered  that  the  construc- 
tion has  been  made  unnecessanly  strong. 

I  was  somewhat  surprised,  on  making  a  calculation  with  the 
architect,  at  the  statistics  of  this  fire-proof  flooring.  The  number 
of  cast  iron  columns  and  girders — similar  to  those  shown  in  the 
drawing  of  the  counting-room — -in  both  parts  of  the  edifice,  is  over 
two  hundred  and  fifty.  This,  too,  does  not  include  the  eighty  ex- 
terior columns  in  the  front  of  the  building  on  Franklin  Square. 
The  number  of  brick  arches,  averaging  about  four  feet  span,  and 
fifteen  feet  in  length  from  girder  to  girder,  with  wrought  iron  beams 
to  support  them,  is  about  two  thousand,  and  the  whole  area  of 
floors  thus  supported  in  the  difi*erent  stories  is  between  two  and 
three  acres.  Let  a  farmer  in  the  country  select  from  among  his 
fields  a  two  and  a  half  acre  lot,  and  imagine  the  whole  surface  of 
it  floored  over,  at  a  height  of  twelve  feet  above  the  ground,  with  a 
series  of  brick  arches,  supported  by  two  hundred  and  fifty  cast 
iron  columns  below,  and  covered  above  with  a  very  close  and  com- 
pact yellow-pine  floor,  and  he  will  have  some  idea  of  the  magnitude 
of  the  scale  on  which  this  vast  structure  is  planned. 


CHAPTER  III. 

MANUFACTURE   OF   THE   IRON   BEAMS. 
The  construction  of  the  floors  described  in  the  preceding  chap- 
ter, by  means  of  "wrought  iron  beams,  and  by  light   segmental 
arches  thrown  from  beam  to  beam,  is  a  very  important  feature  in 
the  construction  of  these  edifices.     It  is  novel  also,  these  edifices 


MANUFACTURE   OF   THE    IKON    BEAMS.  33 

Great  loss  of  property  by  fire.  Essential  requisites  or  a  beam. 

l)eing  the  first  in  which  the  principle  has  been  thoroughly  tested. 
The  nature  and  character  of  these  beams,  therefore,  and  the  mode 
by  which  they  are  manufactured,  deserves  especial  notice,  jiartic- 
ularly  on  account  of  the  economy  which  they  are  the  means  of 
introducing  in  the  structure  of  tire-proof  buildings,  both  in  respect 
to  the  cost,  and  to  the  space  which  the  floors  occupy. 

It  is  no  new  thing  to  build  a  fire-proof  structure,  but  it  is  a 
new  thing  to  build  one  at  a  cost  which  places  this  desirable  restJt 
Avithin  the  means  of  all  who  build  in  large  cities.  It  is  estimated 
that  the  loss  by  conflagrations  in  the  United  States  amounted  to 
twenty-five  millions  of  dollars  during  the  year  1854.  This  sum 
would  easily  pay  the  interest  on  the  extra  cost  of  making  fire- 
proof all  the  structures  in  the  country  in  the  manner  here  de- 
scribed. Besides,  the  mere  loss  in  dollars  does  not  cover  the  dis- 
astrous consequences  of  this  vast  destruction  of  property.  The 
domestic  misery  and  moral  degradation  which  inevitably  result 
from  such  sudden  and  overwhelming  calamities  are  beyond  ]>ocim- 
iary  estimate. 

Iron  was  early  proposed  as  a  substitute  for  the  arches  or  ma- 
sonry originally  employed,  because  it  could  be  placed  horizontally, 
like  wooderi  beams?,  and  would  cost  less  than  the  stone-work.  In 
a  beam,  however,  the  essential  requisite  is  that  it  shall  })c  .v/z/f 
enough  to  sustain  the  load.  To  secure  this  qualify,  the  beams 
must  be  of  a  depth  proportioned  to  the  width  of  the  Rj)acc  they 
are  to  cover.  For  all  ordinary  purposes,  this  rcfpiisite  involves 
great  weight  of  iron  in  each  beam.  It  is  well  known  that  many 
tons  of  cast  iron  can  be  melted  and  fr)nm'd  info  u  sinirle  ])iccc : 

10  C 


34  MANUFACTURE  OF  THE  IKON  BEAMS. 


Use  or  cast  iron.  Use  of  wrought  iron.  Advantages  of  the  latter. 

but  cast  iron  is  comparatively  too  weak  to  resist  a  transverse  strain, 
which  is  tlie  pectdiar  strain  produced  on  a  beam  by  a  loaded  floor. 
To  be  perfectly  secure,  then,  Avith  cast  iron,  it  was  necessary  to 
use  a  much  larger  quantity  of  material  than  would  be  required  of 
wrought  iron.  The  cost  was  thus  increased  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  confine  the  use  of  such  beams  to  a  really  limited  sphere.  Be- 
sides, cast  iron  is  liable  to  flaws,  a  single  one  of  which  might  en- 
danger the  safety  of  an  entire  building.  It  also  has  another  pe- 
culiarity, namely,  that  by  being  repeatedly  loaded  and  released 
from  its  load,  some  internal  change  is  produced  in  the  texture  of 
the  iron,  which  weakens  it,  so  that  it  has  less  power  each  time  to 
resist  tlie  strain  than  before ;  and  hence,  in  floors  subjected  to  great 
intermitting  strains,  the  ultimate  failure  of  the  cast  iron  beams  is 
certain,  if  the  loads  approach  nearly  to  the  measure  of  the  strength 
of  the  material.  The  total  destruction  of  some  large  buildings  and 
bridges  in  Eng-land  led  to  the  investigation  of  the  cause,  and  to 
the  estabHshment  of  the  facts  above  stated. 

Attention  was  next  turned  to  "v\a-ouo;lit  iron.  AVrouo-ht  iron  has 
all  the  properties  necessary  for  a  beam  in  far  greater  perfection 
than  cast  iron.  It  does  not  break  suddenly,  but,  when  overstrain- 
ed, gives  notice  of  the  approaching  failure  by  slowly  bending.  It 
is  much  stronger  than  any  other  material  to  resist  a  transverse 
strain,  and  therefore  may  be  made  proportionately  light,  thus  saving 
weight  in  the  walls  and  foundations  of  the  building,  and  head-room 
in  the  respective  stories.  Patient  experiments  were  made  to  de- 
termine the  best  form  in  which  to  distribute  the  material.  The 
liighest  mathematical  knowledge  and  skill  were  required  to  determ- 


MANUFACTURE    OF    THK    IRON    BEAMS.  35 

Flanged  beams  or  wrought  iron  proved  to  be  the  best. 

ine  the  laws  -wliich  governed  the  strains  upon  wrought  ir<)n,  and  it 
is  one  ot'the  proudest  triumphs  of  modern  science  tliat  a  tew  short 
months  onlj  were  required  to  determine  linally  and  forever,  on 
scientific  principles,  the  laws  of  construction  for  cast  and  wrought 
iron,  which  the  blind  experiments  of  centuries  before  had  failed  to 
discover. 

For  building  purposes,  it  was  finally  settled  that  flanged*  beams 
of  wrought  iron  are  most  desirable  when  the  requisites  of  strength, 
lightness,  and  convenience  of  application  are  considered.  This 
point  being  determined,  it  was  necessary  to  devise  the  best  mode 
of  producing  beams  in  this  material.  Two  modes  of  working 
wrought  iron  are  known,  one  by  hammering  it,  the  other  by  roll- 
ing it  into  the  required  shape.  Hammering  is  an  expensive  oper- 
ation, and  is  found  to  make  the  beams  too  costly  for  use.  Flanged 
beams  of  the  requisite  weight  had  never  been  rolled.  In  fact,  the 
whole  process  of  rolling  iron  is  comparatively  new.  It  was  in- 
vented by  Cort  in  the  last  century,  who,  by  Iiis  invention  of  tiie 
puddling  process  as  well,  did  more  than  any  otlier  man,  except 
Watt,  for  modern  industry,  and  Avas  rewarded  with  poverty  in  his 
lifetime,  and  is  now  almost  forgotten  in  the  grave.  '!'<»  him  is  due 
the  manufacture  of  iron  at  a  cost  which  enables  it  to  be  iised  with 
such  profusion  in  the  mechanic  arts,  thus  gi-eatly  cheapening  all 
the  artificial  necessaries  of  civilized  life. 

The  difficidty  of  heating  and  handling  heavy  masses  of  iron, 

*  A  flanire  upon  a  beam  is  a  flat  projection  cxtcndiinj  from  oiul  to  eiui  of  it.  -\ 
good  example  of  a  flange  is  seen  in  the  projecting  rim  of  a  rail-roaJ  wheel,  which 
serves  to  keep  the  wheel  from  running  olT  the  track. 


3()  MANUFACTURE  OF  THE  IRON  BEAMS. 

Riveted  beams.  Expense  of  them.  The  Trenton  Iron  Company. 

though  a  very  serious  one  at  first,  was  nevertheless  overcome  long 
before  any  practicable  process  could  he  devised  for  making  bars 
deep  enough,  with  ilanges  broad  enough,  to  answer  for  spanning 
any  considerable  distance  between  walls.  Hence,  to  use  wrought 
iron  at  all,  it  became  necessary  to  rivet  separate  pieces  together 
into  the  shape  of  a  flanged  bar.  But,  as  separate  pieces  are  never 
as  strong  as  a  single  piece,  and  as  the  rivet-holes  necessarily  di- 
minish the  strength  of  the  material,  it  becomes  necessary  to  use 
more  iron,  besides  expending  great  labor  in  fastening  tlie  pieces 
together.  This  made  the  beams  expensive,  and,  although  fire- 
proofing  now  became  practicable,  and  free  from  most  of  the  objec- 
tions Avhich  could  be  urged  against  the  other  modes,  it  was  still 
too  costly  for  ordinary  purposes,  owing  to  the  complex  character 
of  the  beams. 

The  desideratum  was  therefore  to  make  a  solid  rolled  flanged 
beam  of  the  right  shape  and  proportions,  and  of  the  weight  re- 
quired for  the  spans  ordinarily  adopted  in  the  buildings  of  large 
cities.  The  method  of  rolling  such  flanged  beams  was  finally 
brought  into  successful  operation  at  the  iron-works  of  the  Trenton 
Iron  Company,  situated  in  Trenton,  N.  J.  The  difiiculties  to  be 
overcome  in  contriving  and  constructing  the  necessary  machinery 
were  very  great.  The  mass  of  iron  required  for  each  beam,  and 
which  has,  of  course,  to  be  pressed  through  the  rollers  at  almost  a 
white  heat,  is  enormously  heavy.  Then  the  difiiculty  of  construct- 
ing the  rollers  so  that  the  iron,  in  passing  through  between  them, 
shall  have  formed  upon  it  flanges  so  wide  as  are  necessary  for 
beams,  was  very  serious.     We  can  not  here  describe  the  means 


MANUFACTURE    OF    THE    IKOX    HEA.MS.  37 

William  Borrow.  Ilia  death.  Value  of  hm  Invention. 

bj  which  at  length  the  end  was  attained.*  The  arrangement  was 
invented  hy  a  young  EngHshman  named  William  Boitow.  He 
was  a  relative  of  the  author  of  Lavengro  and  of  tlic  ]>iblc  in  Spain. 
Mr.  Peter  Cooper,  under  Avhose  generid  charge  the  o])eration  was 
conducted,  was  specially  interested  in  the  work,  from  the  desire  to 
employ  such  Leanis  for  the  purpose  of  making  fire-proof  the  large 
cdiHcc  which  he  was  then  erecting  iu  New  York  for  the  Scientific 
Institution.  He  calculated  that  he  should  be  able  to  j)ut  up  the 
machinery  in  four  montlis,  and  at  an  expense  of  about  thirty  tiiou- 
sand  dollars. 

The  difhculties  were,  however,  found  .to  be  far  greater  than  had 
been  foreseen.  Instead  of  four  months,  it  was  two  years  before 
the  machinery  was  brought  into  successful  operation,  and  the  cost 
of  it,  instead  of  thirty,  was  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars. 
And  when  at  length  the  machinery  was  made  to  work  successful- 
ly, the  designer,  ]\Ir.  Borrow,  suddenly  became  iU,  and  died  with- 
in a  week,  from  the  prostration  of  all  his  energies,  luental  and  phys- 
ical— a  martyr  to  the  difficulties  which  beset  the  practical  workers 
of  the  Avorld,  whose  story  is  seldom  told,  and  who  die  without  odes 
or  funeral  orations  to  celebrate  their  triumph  or  to  honor  their 
memory.  And  yet  it  is  very  likely  to  prove  in  the  end  that  Will- 
iam l>orrow  has  been  one  of  the  benefactors  of  his  race.  His  in- 
vention will  probably  save  millions  of  property  from  destruction — 
will  ward  off  sorrow  and  calamity  from  iimumerable  he^irths  and 

*  The  process  of  rolliiijj  out  these  imiiiciise  bars  of  jjlowitig  iron  forms  «  very  mag- 
iiifieent  spectacle.  It  can  he  witnessed  al  any  time  l>y  visilinfj  llic  works  at  Trenton, 
which  arc  always  readily  shown  to  strangers. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  THE  IKON  BEAMS. 


The  Harpers'  decision  to  adopt  the  wrought-iron  beam. 


liomes ;  and,  by  the  preserving  of  capital  from  destruction,  give 
vigor  to  great  industrial  enterprises  in  many  future  years. 

It  Avas  just  about  the  time  that  the  machinery  for  rolling  these 
beams  was  brought  to  perfection  that  the  J\Icssrs.  Harper  were 
making  arrangements  for  the  erection  of  the  new  buildings  for  their 
establishment,  and,  after  giving  the  subject  a  careful  consideration, 
they  determined  to  adopt  them.  The  result  has  been  triumphant- 
ly successful,  and  this  mode  of  building  is  now  likely  to  be  exten- 
sively adopted.  After  a  full  and  careful  examination  of  the  sub- 
ject by  the  government,  it  has  been  decided  to  adopt  the  plan  in 
all  the  custom-houses  and  other  public  edifices  in  the  United 
States. 

A  wrought  iron  beam  of  this  principle  seems  a  very  simple  thing, 
both  in  its  structure  and  in  its  functions,  and  yet  it  is  surprising 
what  a  vast  combination  of  means  and  instrumentalities  is  neces- 
sary, and  on  what  a  prodigious  scale  the  work  must  be  performed, 
in  order  to  produce  such  beams  with  sufficient  economy  to  make 
the  invention  of  practical  value  to  society.  It  has  already  been 
stated  that  a  solid  wrought  iron  beam  might  be  made  by  hammer- 
ing, but  that  its  cost,  if  thus  manufactured,  would  be  too  gi'eat  to 
allow  of  its  use.  The  expense  would,  however,  in  this  case,  be  in- 
curred in  the  jwocess  of  inannfacturing  rather  than  in  the  orig- 
inal outlay  for  machinery.  An  outlay  of  twenty-five  thousand 
or  thirty  thousand  dollars  would  enable  solid  hammered  beams  to 
be  made,  but  then  the  expense  of  the  process  of  manufacturing 
would  bring  the  cost  to  ten  or  twelve  cents  per  pound.  Rolled 
beams  are  made  at  five  or  six  cents  per  pound,  or  about  one  half 


MANUFACTURK  OF  THE  IRON  BEAMS.  39 

Great  investment  or  capital  required  in  the  maiiufiicture. 

the  above  rate.  But  then  tlie  cx|x;nditurc  of  capital  required  in 
the  iirst  iustauce,  in  order  to  cticct  this  reduction,  is  enormous.  In 
the  first  place,  in  order  to  make  iron  cheaply,  the  works  must  be 
on  a  large  scale.  Tliis  precludes  the  use  of  charcoal  as  a  fuel,  be- 
cause it  can  not  be  got  in  (juantities  sufficiently  large  for  great 
works  without  soon  drivuig  tlie  woodchopper  to  a  distance  from 
the  works  so  great  as  to  destroy  the  value  of  tiie  coal  by  the  ex- 
pense of  hauling  it.  ^lincral  coal  must  therefore  be  used,  and 
some  site  of  manufacture  must  be  selected  to  wliicli  both  ore  and 
coal  can  be  conveniently  brought  in  large  quantities.  Then  ex- 
tensive blast  furnaces  must  be  erected  for  tlie  conversion  of  tlie 
ore  into  pig  metal,  and  a  forge  built  for  turning  the  pig  metal  into 
wrought  iron  by  the  processes  of  puddling*  and  rolling. 

The  works  of  the  Trenton  Iron  Company  are  upon  tiie  smallest 
scale  which  will  combine  all  these  processes  in  an  economical 
manner,  and  yet  the  total  expenditure  for  mines,  furnaces,  mills, 
water  and  steam  power,  in  establishing  them,  is  about  om;  million 
of  dollars.  The  number  of  hands  employed  directly  are  about  two 
thousand,  and  the  labor  of  all  these  is  essential  to  make  a  single 
beam  at  six  cents  per  pound.  Besides  tiiis,  the  coal-mines  nuist 
be  opened  and  operated  on  an  extensive  scale,  in  order  to  produce 
coal  cheaply.  At  least  a  million  more  is  essential  for  this  pur- 
pose ;  for,  although  the  iron-works  do  not  take  all  the  coal,  yet,  if 
the  mines  were  not  operated  extensively,  the  coal  would  not  be 
cheap  enough  to  enable  the  maimfacturer  to  make  beams  cheaply. 

*  Puddling  is  a  j)cculiar  process  liy  wliicli  cast  iron  is  converted  into  wrought  iron 
\>y  means  of  passing  it  between  rollers  at  a  j;reat  heat. 


40  MANUFACTURE  OF  THE  IRON  BEAMS. 

Subsidiary  agencies  required.  Future  progress  of  manufacturing  arts. 

Then  the  coal  and  ore  must  be  got  to  the  works.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  the  Leliigh  Canal  and  the  Morris  Canal,  which  have 
cost  some  twelve  or  fifteen  millions  of  dollars,  and  are  maintained 
bj  a  large  annual  expenditure.  Then  the  pig  iron  must  be  trans- 
ported to  the  mill  over  works  that  have  cost  two  millions  of  dol- 
lars more ;  and,  finally,  the  beams  must  be  brought  to  New  York 
either  by  the  Delaware  and  Raritan  Canal,  or  by  the  Camden  and 
Amboy  Rail-road — works  which  have  cost  some  ten  millions  of 
dollars  more,  thus  making  essential  for  the  production  of  a  single 
rolled  beam  at  six  cents  per  pound,  instead  of  a  hammered  one  at 
ten  cents  per  pound,  an  investment  of  from  twenty-six  to  thirty 
millions  of  dollars,  which,  though  of  use  for  countless  other  pur- 
poses, is  still  essential  for  this  purpose ;  for  if  a  single  link  in  the 
chain  were  wanting,  the  extra  cost  would  more  than  cover  all  the 
difference  between  the  hammering  and  the  rolling  of  iron. 

This  simple  statement  will  serve  to  explain  why  the  comforts 
and  luxiuies  of  life  are  made  accessible  to  all  ranks  by  modem  in- 
dustry, while  only  two  hundred  or  three  hundred  years  ago  they 
were  confined  to  a  very  small  j)oii;ion  of  the  community.  When- 
ever any  article  can  be  made  on  a  scale  sufficiently  large  to  take 
advantage  of  the  best  method,  it  can  be  cheaply  made ;  when  but 
little  is  required,  the  cost  must  be  great.  Hence,  in  the  progress 
of  society,  manufactured  articles  Avill  be  brought  within  the  means 
of  all  when  all  require  them. 


INTEKIOK   OF   THE    CLIFF    STREET    BUILDING.  41 

The  sectional  view  of  the  edifice.  The  basement  story. 


CIL\TTER  IV. 

INTERIOIi   OF   THE    CLIFF   STREET    BUILDIXG. 

The  edifice  on  Franklin  Square  is  mainly  devoted,  as  has  al- 
ready been  explained,  to  the  purpose  of  storing  j)apcr  and  books, 
and  the  various  other  suppHcs  of  stock  and  niaterial.s  used  in  tlie 
establishment,  while  the  processes  of  manufacture  arc  carried  on 
altogether  in  the  Cliff  Street  building.  In  order  to  give  the  read- 
er a  distinct  idea  of  the  arrangement  of  thi.-;  buikliiig,  and  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  different  floors  are  appropriated  to  their  sev- 
eral uses,  the  artist  has  drawn  a  sectional  view  of  the  edifice,  rep- 
resentin'T  at  one  view  the  whole  interior  of  it.  Bv  tuniintr  over 
the  leaf  this  engraving  wiU  be  seen.  It  represents  the  seven  tloor.s 
of  the  building,  with  the  operations  which  are  jxjrfomied  in  each. 
I  propose,  in  this  chapter,  to  take,  with  the  reader,  a  cursor}-  sur- 
vey of  the  whole,  with  a  view  of  afterward  considering  the  several 
operations  by  themselves,  one  by  one,  and  describing  them  in  full 
detail. 

The  lowermost  story  seen  in  the  section  is  the  basement.  -Vt 
the  extremity  of  it,  on  tlie  left,  we  see  parts  of  the  engine  and  ma- 
chinery which  supply  moving  power  for  all  the  0})e rations  of  the 
establishment.  This  power  is  conveyed  to  tiic  different  floors  by 
a  system  of  axles,  pulleys,  and  bands,  extending  from  story  to 
story.  The  main  work  which  this  engine  has  to  perform  is  the 
driving  of  the  presses  on  the  floor  above. 


42 


INTEKIOIt   OP   THE   CLIFF   STREET   BUILDING. 


Sectional  view  of  the  Cliff  Street  building. 


IXTEKlOli    OF    llli:    CLIFF    STKKKT    JU  11.1)1  NG.  43 


Various  objects  seen  in  the  basement  Btorj'. 


Farther  toward  the  right,  in  the  basement  story,  we  see  a  door 
Avhich  leads  to  the  hoiler-rooin  in  the  court-yard.  Farther  still, 
near  the  centre  of  the  room,  several  hydraulic  standiiig-jiresscs  are 
seen,  and  also,  still  farther  to  the  right,  some  printing-presses. 
The  principal  use  of  this  lower  room  is  to  receive  the  pajx;r  from 
the  store-room  in  the  Franklin  S([uare  building,  and  prepare  it  to 
be  put  upon  the  printing-presses  in  the  room  above.  It  retjuires 
to  be  pressed  in  the  standing-presses  in  order  to  make  it  smooth, 
and  to  be  damped  that  it  may  take  the  ink  properly  from  the  im- 
pression. Of  course,  only  a  very  small  portion  of  the  operations 
perlbrmed  in  this  room  can  be  shown  in  a  section  like  this.  Tiie 
room  is,  in  fact,  more  than  sixty  feet  wide  from  front  to  back,  while 
the  section  shows  only  a  single  line  of  operations  from  left  to  right 
through  tlie  centre  of  it.  ,\.t  the  very  extremity  of  the  room  on 
the  right,  we  see  a  door  wliich  leads  to  the  subterranean  vaults, 
where  the  electrotype  and  stereotype  plates  are  stored.  Still  far- 
ther to  the  right,  beyond  tlie  partition  wall  at  the  end  of  tlie  room, 
we  see  a  liorse  and  cart  cominer  iVom  thi;  court  throutxli  the  archccl 
passage-way,  and  directly  beneath  is  a  section  of  one  of  the  vauhs, 
with  two  men  going  into  it  by  the  light  of  a  lantern. 

The  hrst  story  above  the  basement,  which  is  the  principal  or 
first  storv  of  the  buildinsj;,  is  the  irreat  itress-room.  This  is  tiie 
room  Avhich  is  represented  in  the  ground  plan  on  j)age  21.  Then^ 
we  saw  the  position  of  the  presses  on  the  floor;  liere,  on  th«'  otluT 
liand,  we  have  a  front  elevation  of  one  tier  of  them.  'I'hcre  arc 
three  tiers,  ten  in  eacli  tier,  except  two  spaces  opposite  tlie  doors, 
making  twenty-eight  in  alL      The  weight  of  these  presses  is  about 


44  INTERIOR   OF   THE   CLIFF   STREET   BUILDING. 

The  presses  in  the  press-room.  The  feeders.  Preparing  the  forms. 

five  tons  each,  making  ten  tons  for  the  two  which  stand  between 
each  two  of  the  columns.  The  distribution  of  these  columns,  and 
the  arrangement  of  the  girders  and  arches  on  each  of  the  floors,  is 
very  distinctly  seen  in  this  sectional  drawing. 

We  observe  that  each  of  the  presses  is  attended  by  a  girl,  who 
stands  upon  a  raised  platform  by  the  side  of  it.  Her  duty  is  to 
feed  the  press  with  j)aper,  placing  one  sheet  at  a  time.  The 
sheet  is  throwTi  over  when  it  is  printed  by  what  is  called  the  fly, 
which  is  a  light  wooden  frame,  like  a  hand  with  a  multitude  of 
straight  slender  fingers,  Avhich  lifts  the  sheet  when  it  has  received 
the  impression,  and  throws  it  over  upon  the  pile  formed  by  those 
which  had  been  printed  before.  At  the  right-hand  end  of  the 
room  this  fly  may  be  seen  very  distinctly  in  the  act  of  going  back 
after  another  sheet  of  paper,  and  on  the  other  presses  along  the 
line  we  see  it  in  various  positions,  bringing  the  printed  sheet  over. 

At  the  extreme  end  of  the  press-room,  toward  the  right,  we  see 
two  men  standing  at  a  table.  They  are  preparing  a  form  for  the 
press.  This  is  a  very  important  operation,  and  will  be,  hereafter, 
more  fully  described.  Near  them  is  a  flight  of  steps  leading  up 
to  an  elevated  compartment  directly  over  the  passage  into  the 
court-yard,  v/here  we  see  the  horse  and  cart  coming  out.  This  is 
tlie  office  of  the  foreman  of  the  press-room.  Over  his  desk  is  a 
large  opening,  through  which  he  can  survey  his  whole  dominion, 
and  observe  the  action  of  all  the  presses  and  machinery.  The 
men  who  are  employed  in  preparing  the  forms  for  the  press  are 
directly  beneath  this  window. 

At  the  other  end  of  the  press-room,  namely,  at  the  extreme  left," 


INTERIOR    OF    THK    CLIFF    STREET    BinLDIXO.  45 


The  drying  and  pressing  room.  Apparalus  for  dr>  ln(f. 


is  a  hand-press,  used  for  working  off  hand-bills,  circulars,  and  for 
otlier  small  operations. 

We  noAV  pass  to  the  next  story  above,  which  is  called  tlie  dr>'- 
ing  and  pressing-room.  The  jmnted  slieets,  as  fast  as  they  arc 
taken  from  the  presses  below,  are  brouglit  to  this  room  through 
the  lioistway  in  the  com-t-yard.  The  entrance  to  this  hoistway 
is  seen  opposite  the  third  press  in  the  press-room,  counting  from 
the  right  toward  the  left.  It  is  a  -wide  opening  closed  by  double 
doors,  and  directly  above  it,  in  each  story,  is  a  similar  oj)pninfT  lead- 
ing to  the  hoistway.     In  one  of  the  stories  the  doors  are  open. 

The  range  of  doors  leading  to  the  staircase  in  the  tower  is  a 
little  to  the  left  of  the  openings  leading  to  the  hoistwav.  Tlie 
doors  leading  to  the  staircase  are  narrower,  it  will  be  seen,  than 
those  of  tlie  hoistway.  All  the  other  openings  in  idl  the  stories 
are  windows. 

But  let  us  return  to  the  drying  and  pressing-room.  At  the  ex- 
treme right,  over  the  office  of  the  foreman  of  tlie  press-room,  is  a 
range  of  hydraulic  presses,  where  the  sheets  are  pressed  after  being 
printed.  They  are,  however,  dried  before  they  are  pressed.  This 
dr\-ing  operation  is  performed  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  room, 
namely,  on  the  left.  There  is  a  compartment  inclosed  lierc  wiiich 
is  kept  constantly  heated  by  steam-pipes,  with  a  system  of  large 
frames,  like  horses  for  drying  clothes,  which  can  be  drawn  in  and 
out.  We  sec  the  compartment  in  the  engraving  in  the  first  tlivi- 
sion  of  this  room  on  the  left,  that  is,  in  tiic  part  between  the  wall 
and  the  lirst  tier  of  pillars.  Between  the  tirst  and  second  tier  of 
pillars  we  sec  two  of  the  frames  out.     One  of  them  is  already  filled 


46  INTERIOR   OF   THE    CLIFF   STREET    BUILDING. 

The  hydraulic  presses.  Piles  of  pressed  paper  ready  to  be  folded. 

with  sheets  of  paper,  and  the  workman  is  in  the  act  of  pushing  it 
in  to  the  heated  compartment,  in  order  that  the  sheets  may  be  dried 
there.  Tlie  other  frame  is  not  yet  ready  to  go  in ;  a  workman  is 
employed  in  putting  sheets  upon  it  by  means  of  a  pole  with  a 
cross-bar  at  the  top,  as  seen  in  the  engraving. 

When  the  sheets  are  dry,  they  are  taken  on  trucks — one  of 
which  is  seen  standing  near — to  the  other  extremity  of  the  room, 
to  be  pressed  in  the  hydraulic  presses.  An  enlarged  view  and  a 
more  full  description,  both  of  the  drying  apparatus  and  of  the  hy- 
draulic presses,  will  be  given  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

The  hydraulic  engine,  by  which  the  pressure  is  applied  to  the 
sheets  and  the  presses,  is  represented  in  the  engraving,  though  I 
am  not  certain  that  the  reader  will  be  able  to  iind  it.  It  stands 
in  the  division  of  the  room  which  comes  between  the  first  and  sec- 
ond columns,  reckoning  from  the  right.  It  stands  near  a  window, 
a  little  to  the  left  of  where  two  men  are  at  work  piling  up  a  stack 
of  paper  to  go  into  one  of  the  hydraulic  presses.  To  the  left  of 
the  hydraulic  engine  is  a  range  of  tables — only  one  of  which,  how- 
ever, is  seen  in  the  engraving — where  the  sheets  are  prepared  to 
go  into  the  pi'esses,  and  aiTanged  when  they  come  out.  The  op- 
eration, which  is  quite  a  curious  one,  will  be  more  fully  described 
hereafter. 

In  the  centre  of  the  room  are  to  be  seen,  stacked  up  in  large 
racks,  a  number  of  great  piles  of  sheets  of  paper  that  have  been 
pressed  and  dried,  and  are  now  ready  to  be  folded  for  the  binder. 
These  stacks  are  some  of  them  so  high  that,  in  order  to  put  on  the 
uppermost  sheets,  the  men  are  obliged  to  mount  upon  ladders,  as 


INTERIOR   OF   THE   CLIFF   STREET   BUILDING.  47 

Folding-room.  r;as  fixtures.  Wanning  apparaius- 


seen  in  the  engraving,  and  the  weight  is  very  great  wliich  comes 
upon  the  girders  and  beams  of  the  floor  below. 

The  next  stoiy  above,  namely,  the  third  above  tlie  basement,  is 
called  the  folding-room.  The  principal  operation  performed  in  it 
is  that  of  folding  the  sheets  of  paper  after  they  are  pressed,  and 
preparing  them  to  be  stitched  or -sewed.  Tiie  work  of  folding  is 
perlbrmcd  by  girls,  who  sit  at  long  tables  arranged  in  the  room  for 
this  purpose.  One  range  of  these  tables,  with  the  girls  at  their 
Avork,  is  seen  represented  in  the  engraving,  occupying  the  left  half 
of  the  apartment.  Clas  hxturcs,  at  proper  distances,  are  su.spcnd- 
ed  over  the  table  for  evening  work  in  winter.  Similar  burners  are 
to  be  seen  in  various  other  parts  of  the  building. 

Near  each  end  of  this  table  is  to  be  seen  an  apparatus  present- 
ing the  appearance  of  a  frame  of  parallel  bars,  rising  to  a  hciglit  of 
two  or  three  feet  above  the  floor.  These  are  sets  of  steam-pipes, 
by  which  the  apartment  is  warmed.  Similar  sets  of  pipes  arc  seen 
in  various  other  places  on  tlie  ditierent  floors. 

At  the  time  of  folding  the  sheets,  it  is  necessary  to  insert,  in 
then-  proper  places,  between  tlie  leaves,  all  such  engravings  as  have 
been  printed  separately  from  the  body  of  the  work.  'J'he  case  of 
shelves  seen  at  the  end  of  the  apartment,  on  the  left,  near  the  end 
of  the  tabic,  is  used  to  contain  supplies  of  these  engravings,  ar- 
ranged for  use. 

The  doors  leading  to  the  hoistway  are  represented  open  on  this 
story,  and  some  men  are  in  the  act  of  drawing  in  a  loail  of  printed 
sheets  from  the  platform.  A  part  of  the  macliinery  of  tin-  t-leva- 
tor  is  seen  tln-ough  the  opening. 


48  INTERIOR   OF   THE   CLIFF   STREET   BUILDING. 

The  hydraulic  presses.  The  pump.  Long  tables.  Clock. 

^ 

To  the  right  of  the  hoistway  door,  in  the  fourth  story,  near  the 
right-hand  end  of  the  apartment,  is  seen  a  massive  structure,  form- 
ing a  base  for  the  support  of  heavy  presses  in  the  room  above. 
These  are  hydraulic  presses  of  great  weight,  and  a  special  support 
was  accordingly  provided  for  them,  consisting  of  extra  columns  in 
the  second  and  third  stories,  resting  on  a  very  thick  wall  coming 
up  from  the  stories  below.  These  presses  are  used  for  pressing 
the  folded  sheets,  so  as  to  bring  them  together  into  a  compact  form, 
ready  for  sawing  the  backs  and  binding  them.  There  are  two  of 
these  presses  in  fact,  though  only  one  of  them  is  shown  in  the  sec- 
tion. The  hydraulic  pump  by  which  the  pressure  is  applied  is 
seen  to  the  right  of  the  press,  near  the  end  of  the  room.  A  little 
to  the  left  of  the  press  is  a  small  machine  called  a  sawing  machine, 
which  will  hereafter  be  more  fully  explained.  The  man  on  the 
ladder,  to  the  left  of  the  sawing  machine,  is  engaged  in  making 
some  adjustment  of  the  machinery  that  runs  along  from  end  to  end 
of  the  room,  under  the  ceiling,  to  supply  motive  power  to  the  va- 
rious engines  in  the  apartment.  The  remainder  of  tliis  apartment 
is  occupied  by  girls  seated  at  long  tables,  and  employed  in  the 
work  of  sewing  or  stitching  the  sheets.  A  clock  is  seen  hanging 
upon  the  wall,  opposite  the  centre  of  the  tables.  A  little  to  the 
left  of  the  clock  is  the  desk  of  the  man  who  superintends  these  op- 
erations. 

The  next  story,  that  is,  the  fifth  above  the  basement,  is  called 
the  FiNlSHlNG-ROOM.  The  various  operations  performed  in  this 
room  will  be  described  in  detail  hereafter.  The  foreman  is  seen 
sitting  at  a  desk,  on  an  elevated  platform,  in  the  last  division  but 


INTERIOR   OF   THE    CLIFF   STREET    BUILDING.  49 

Great  number  or  presses.  Marbling.  FmiHtungrooin. 

one  toward  the  right.  We  see  the  clock  on  the  wall  behind  hitn. 
Before  liim  are  a  large  number  of  men  engaged  in  what  is  called 
forioardlng  the  books — that  is,  preparing  and  fitting  the  covers, 
pasting  down  the  fly-leaves,  trimming  the  edges,  and  pertbrming 
other  such  processes  preparatory  to  the  stamping  and  gilding.  On 
the  extreme  right  is  a  row  of  standing-presses,  used  for  pressing 
the  books  after  they  are  sewed  and  put  together,  this  raakhig  the 
fourth  time  in  wliich  the  books,  or  the  materials  of  which  they  are 
composed,  have  been  subjected  to  pressure  in  the  ditterent  stages 
of  the  manufacture.  The  number  of  presses  required  for  all  these 
varied  operations  is  not  less  than  twenty-five.  Of  printing-press- 
es— cdl  massive  macliines  of  great  power,  and  driven  by  steam — 
there  arc  tliirty-three  in  the  principal  press-room  and  in  the  story 
below. 

In  the  back  corner  of  this  apartment,  toward  the  right,  is  an  in- 
closure  for  the  process  of  marbling.  Other  portions  of  the  room, 
toward  the  left,  are  also  inclosed  for  different  processes  of  finishing 
work.  In  the  first  division  on  the  left,  we  see  the  men  engagetl 
in  sprinkling  the  backs  of  the  books  for  the  purpose  of  producing 
tlie  mottled  appearance  often  seen  on  the  backs  of  the  covers  of 
books  bound  in  leather.  The  second  and  third  divisions  of  this 
apartment  arc  occupied  by  a  room  in  wiiich  gilding  and  otiier  fin- 
ishing processes  are  performed.  We  observe  a  number  of  small 
i'lirnaces  on  the  table.  In  these  the  irons  for  gilding  are  lu-ated. 
Tiie  fire  is  made  by  flames  of  gas. 

This  brings  us  to  the  upper  story,  which  is  the  great  composing- 
room  of  the  establishment — that  is,  the.  vcjom  wIutc  the  ty}M's  an- 

10  1> 


50  THE   COURT-YARD. 


The  court-yard.  Chimney.  Staircase  tower.  Hoistway. 

set,  as  will  be  hereafter  explained.      The  electrotyping  operations 
are  also  perfonned  here. 

Having  thus  given  a  general  view  of  the  arrangement  of  the 
Cliff  Street  building,  and.  a  summary  account  of  the  several  opera- 
tions performed  in  it,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  consider  some  of  the 
most  important  of  these  operations  in  detail,  beginning  with  com- 
position, which  is  the  first  step  in  the  complicated  process  of  print- 
ing a  book.  We  have  first,  however,  in  order  that  we  may  fully 
complete  our  general  suiwey  of  the  buildings  themselves,  to  take  a 
view  of  the  interior  of  the  court-yard. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE   COURT- YARD. 

The  two  edifices  of  the  Harper  Establishment,  fronting  respect- 
ively on  Chff  Street  and  Frankhn  Square,  are  separated  fi:om  each 
other  by  a  court-yard.  This  coiu't-yard  is  about  twenty-eight  feet 
wide,  and  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  buildings.  It  contains, 
near  the  centre,  three  principal  constructions :  1.  The  great  chim- 
ney of  the  estabKshment ;  2.  The  brick  tower  inclosing  the  circu- 
lar staircase ;  and,  3.  The  hoistway,  by  which  the  various  supplies 
of  materials  and  books  in  the  different  sta2:es  of  manufactui'e  are 
conveyed  up  and  down  to  the  several  stories,  as  required.  Nu- 
merous iron  brideres,  connecting;  the  difterent  stories  of  the  two 
building.s  A^ath  the  hoistway  and  the  tower,  pass  across  this  court, 
and  form  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  it.  A  view  of  the 
whole  is  presented  in  the  engraving  on  the  opposite  page. 


THE    rOT'RT-Y ARD. 


51 


iMTIiUIUU    OK 


52  THE    COUKT-YARD. 


Entrance  to  the  courtyard.  The  machinery  of  the  boistway. 

The  entrance  to  the  court  is  by  an  arched  passage-way  leading 
from  Cliff  Street.  A  cart  is  represented  in  tlie  engraving  as  com- 
ing in.  The  hoistway  is  the  framed  stnicture  on  the  left,  as  seen 
in  the  engi-aving.  It  extends  from  the  ground  to  some  distance 
above  the  topmost  story  of  the  Cliif  Street  building.  There  is 
within  it  a  movable  platform,  which  rises  and  falls  from  top  to 
bottom.  This  platform  is  worked  by  machinery  connected  with 
the  steam-engine,  which  is  placed  in  the  court  beyond  the  tower. 
This  machinery  acts  upon  the  platform  by  means  of  a  cable  which 
passes  over  a  pulley  at  the  top  of  the  hoistway.  This  pulley  may 
be  seen  in  the  engraving,  with  a  roof  above  it  to  protect  it  and  the 
rope  from  the  rain. 

The  platform  itself  is  represented  in  the  engraving  as  near  the 
bottom  of  the  hoistway,  with  a  man  standing  upon  it,  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  raise  and  lower  it,  in  conveying  goods  up  and  down. 
He  controls  the  motions  of  it  by  means  of  levers  placed  within  his 
reach  on  the  platform.  One  of  these  levers  communicates  with 
the  steam-engine ;  the  other  with  a  brake  which  encircles  a  friction- 
wheel,  and,  when  in  action,  retards  the  descent.  This  mechanism 
can  not  be  here  fully  described  in  its  details.  It  is  sufficient  to 
say  that,  by  the  management  of  these  levers,  the  man  in  charge 
can  cause  the  platform  to  ascend  or  descend  at  wiU,  with  himself 
and  all  its  burden  upon  it.  He  can  make  it  move  as  fast  or  as 
slow  as  he  pleases,  and  by  means  of  a  ratchet-wheel  connected  with 
the  mechanism,  can  lock  it  at  any  moment  wherever  he  wishes  it 
to  stop.  He  can  place  it  in  this  manner  opposite  the  doors  lead- 
ing to  any  of  the  various  stories  of  the  Cliff  Street  buildina:,  or  to 


THE    COURT-VAiil».  63 


The  iron  bridges  in  the  court-yard.  Gloss  roor  over  the  boilers. 

the  bridges  leading  to  the  Franklin  Square  building.  AVlien  the 
platform  is  so  placed,  the  floor  of  it  fonns  a  continuous  surface 
with  the  floor  of  the  bridge  or  of  the  doorwa}',  as  the  case  may  be, 
and  thus  the  trucks  containing  the  books  or  the  paper,  or  Avhatever 
else  it  may  be,  that  is  to  be  transported  up  or  down,  can  be  drawn 
directly  upon  it. 

The  hoistway  is  six  feet  square,  and  as  the  lireadth  of  the  court 
is  twenty-eight  feet,  it  leaves  twenty-two  for  the  length  of  the 
bridges  leading  from  it  to  the  Franklin  Square  building.  The 
bridges  leading  from  the  tower  are  not  so  long,  tlie  tower  being  sit- 
uated nearer  the  centre  of  the  court. 

Some  of  the  bridges  are  level,  others  are  more  or  less  inclined, 
owing-  to  the  difl'crent  relative  hci";lits  of  the  several  stories  of  the 
two  buildings. 

The  tower  itself  is  ten  feet  in  diameter  outside,  and  eight  with- 
in. It  contains  a  spiral  staircase  of  iron,  with  landings  opposite 
the  bridges  leading  to  the  several  stories  of  the  two  buildings. 
The  chimney,  which  is  seen  rising  like  a  moiuimcnt  to  some  dis- 
tance above  the  roof,  is  the  only  ])ortion  of  the  original  establish- 
ment not  destroyed  by  the  tire.  It  presented  a  singular  spectacle, 
rising  above  the  blackened  ruins  which  lay  smouldering  around. 

All  that  part  of  the  court-yard  which  lies  beyond  the  tower  is 
roofed  over  with  glass.  This  roof  is  shown  more  distinctly  in  the 
plan  on  page  51.  The  inclosure  contains  the  boilers  of  the  steam- 
engine.  The  boilers  are  placed  thus  in  the  court-yard  for  the 
double  purpose  of  security  against  fire,  and  to  prevent  any  dam- 
age to  the  Ijuildings  themselves  from  an  explosion. 


54  COMPOSITION. 


The  windows.  Question  of  iron  shutters.  (.'omposition. 

The  windows  that  open  upon  this  coui't,  as  well  as  all  the  ex- 
terior windows  of  the  buildings,  are  framed  and  sashed  with  iron, 
and  are  of  very  large  size.  Those  of  the  principal  floors  are  each 
six  feet  wide  by  twelve  feet  high.  The  average  size  of  all  the 
windows  in  the  building  is  four  feet  by  nine,  and  the  whole  num- 
ber of  Avindows  is  four  hundred  and  thirty-four.  Portions  of  each 
sash  are  made  to  move  on  pivots  for  ventilation. 

It  Avas  thought  best  not  to  apply  iron  shutters  to  the  windows 
opening  into  this  court,  as  the  communication  of  fire  across  the 
court,  by  the  burning  of  the  materials  in  any  room  of  either  build- 
ing, to  the  opposite  room  in  the  other,  is  deemed  all  but  impossi- 
ble ;  and  the  iron  shutters,  if  applied,  would  operate  to  prevent  the 
breaking  out  of  a  fire  fi-om  being  so  soon  observed  by  the  watch- 
man, in  case  the  accident  should  occur. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

COMPOSITION. 


The  printer's  type,  notwithstanding  the  -o'onders  that  it  per- 
fonus,  and  the  vast  influence  which  it  exerts  on  the 
welfare  and  destiny  of  man,  is  in  itself  a  very  sim- 
ple little  thing.  It  is  a  siuall,  short  metallic  bar, 
with  the  form  of  the  letter  Avhich  it  is  intended  to 
print  cast  on  one  end  of  it.  This  engraving  repre- 
sents a  type  of  the  letter  m,  of  the  natui-al  size — 
TYPE  OF  A  LETTER,  fliat  Is,  of  ouc  of  tlic  uatural  sizes,  for,  of  course,  the 


coM^o^5lTl(J^.  55 


Great  number  and  variety  oftypes.  The  cotiiposing-BUek. 

Lreadtli  and  thickness  of  the  little  bar  varies  according  to  the  size 
of  the  intended  letter,  thougli  the  lengtii  is  always  the  same,  being 
made  to  confonn  to  a  connnon  standard. 

Besides  letters,  there  are  types  for  commas,  periods,  quotation 
marks,  and  all  other  characters  used  in  printing.     There  arc  also 
,  shorter  pieces  of  metal,  which  are  put  in  between 

</x'^^         the  words,  where  a  little  space  is  required  to  sep- 
/-}^    arate  them.     These  are  called  itj^accb-  themselves. 
You  see  them  represented  in  the  annexed  engrav- 
ing. 
/  Of  course,  the  forms  of  the  letters  arc  reversed 

TviE..  .M.I  tp.  ^^  ^jjQ  t^i^es,  but  they  come  right  in  the  printing. 
They  come  right,  too,  by  being  roHectcd,  as  you  will  see  l)y  hold- 
ing up  the  page  containing  the  preceding  engraving  before  u  mir- 
ror. "When  types  are  airangod  in  this  way,  so  as  to  form  the 
words  that  are  to  be  printed,  they  are  said  to  be  set  vp,  and  the 
work  of  setting  them  up  is  called  composing  or  covipoffition* 

In  arranging  his  types,  the  compositor  has  a  little  iron  frame 
to  set  them  up  in,  which  is  large  enough  to  iiold  from  twclvr  to 
twenty  lines  at  a  time.  This  instrument  is  called  a  conqHJsing- 
stick. 

*  The  word  compose  means  strictly  to  plurc  together.  In  wri'.iiij;  composition  in  a 
school,  the  writer  arranges  and  |)Uts  together  words  and  ideas  to  form  seiilenres  and 
a  continued  discourse,  while  tlie  printer's  composition  is  the  arranging  and  putting 
together  of  letters  to  form  words  and  sentences.  So  also  the  putting  together  of  mu- 
sical notes,  in  such  a  way  as  that,  when  they  are  jtlayed  or  sung,  tluy  will  fonn  a 
tune,  is  called  musical  composition;  and,  when  dilTerent  suhstanres  are  mixtnl  togeth- 
•  r  to  make  a  compound,  the  result  is  i>fl<n  lirnied  a  rompnsttiiw 


56 


COMPOSITION. 


Setting  type. 


Plan  and  arrangement  of  the  cases. 


The  following  engraving  represents  the  foiTn  of  a  composing- 
stick. 


-1 


r  ^^j^ilo^iii/jimvmg^jOH 


w\  /  r  K  ^  \  \y    /  /  I)   /I  / 1)  1 


f  I    r  I-     li ;    /  ^- 


COMPOSING-STICK 


In  setting  up  the  type  in  the  composing-stick,  the  compositor 
stands  at  what  is  called  the  case.  The  case  is  a  broad  and  shal- 
low box,  divided  into  a  number  of  compartments  by  means  of 
thin  partitions.      Each  compartment  is  fiUed  with  the  types  of 

one  particular  letter  or  charac- 
ter. There  are,  in  fact,  two  of 
these  cases  before  each  com- 
positor. One  lies  directly  be- 
fore him,  on  a  stand,  and  is 
placed  in  a  sloping  position, 
like  the  top  of  a  desk.  The 
other  is  farther  back,  and  is 
more  nearly  upriglit.  The 
position  of  both  is  represent- 
ed in  the  adjoining  engra'snng. 
The  first  mentioned  of  these 
"^"^  ''*^'^'  cases  is  called  the  lower  case. 

The  other  is  the  nj)per  one.     The  upper  case  contains  the  capitals, 


COMPOSITION.  67 


Construction  of  the  different  compartment!).  Comparative  number  oriettera. 

small  capitals,  foot-note  marks,  clashes,  &c.,  and  the  lower  one  tlie 
small  letters,  points,  figures,  double  letters,  and  spaces.  Tliese, 
being  the  t}i)es  most  in  use,  are  placed  in  the  case  nearest  to  the 
liand  of  the  workman. 

Below  are  draAvers  containing  Italic  letters,  and  other  sorts  still 
less  frequently  employed. 

In  respect  to  the  compartments  of  the  cases,  there  are  two  things 
particularly  to  be  observed :  one  is,  that  they  vary  much  in  size, 
and  the  other  is,  that  the  letters  are  not  placed  in  them  at  all  in 
alphabetical  order.  Some  letters  occur  much  more  fre(juently  in 
our  language  than  others.  The  letter  e,  for  example,  is  mucli  more 
common  than  any  other  ;  the  printer  consequently  recpiires  a  much 
larger  supply  of  c'a  than  of  the  rest,  and  he  wishes,  too,  to  have 
them  near  at  hand  ;  whereas  the  letters y,  and  /•,  and  x,  occur  ver)' 
unfrequently.  Quite  a  small  compartment,  therefore,  avIU  answer 
for  tliem,  and  it  may  be  placed,  moreover,  a  little  fartiicr  away. 
The  case  is  planned,  in  a  word,  with  reference  to  having  the  letters 
most  frequently  in  use  provided  with  the  largest  compartments, 
and  also  to  having  them  nearest  to  the  eonq)ositor*s  liand. 

You  can  easily  prove  to  your  own  satisiaetion  how  nnu-Ii  more 
numerous  some  letters  are  than  others  in  our  language,  by  count- 
ing the  number  of  those  of  the  same  kind  in  any  sentence  in  a 
book.  If  you  take  any  sentence  of  four  or  five  lines,  you  will  be 
sure  to  find  many  more  e^a  than  any  otlier  letter,  and  very  few 
/s,  /l-'s,  .c's,  .rs,  and  y's.  You  will  iind  a  considerable  number 
of  ^'s  and  a'a — about  three  quarters  as  many  as  of  tlic  e*8.  Of 
c's  you  will  Iind  about  om'.  f|uait<r  as  many,  wliili^  o\' 2'\>  you  will 


o8  COMPOSITION. 


The  art  of  deciphering.  Curious  method  by  counting  the  characters. 


only  find  one  for  every  sixty  e's.  Indeed,  the  proportion  of  the 
various  letters  in  all  English  writing  is  much  more  regular  than 
one  would  have  supposed,  so  that  it  may  be  made  quite  a  subject 
of  calculation. 

A  very  curious  use  of  this  principle  is  made  in  what  is  called 
the  art  of  deciphering.  In  time  of  war,  when  letters  containing 
orders,  or  any  important  intelligence,  are  sent  from  one  officer  to 
another,  under  circumstances  in  which  it  is  probable  that  they 
might  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  it  is  customary  to  vaiie 
them  in  cipher,  as  it  is  called,  that  is,  in  secret  characters ;  and 
when  such  letters  are  seized  by  the  other  party,  it  is  a  great  art 
to  decipher  them.  Now  if  the  cipher,  that  is,  the  secret  mode  of 
\\Titing,  consists  only  of  using,  instead  of  each  letter  of  the  alpha- 
bet, some  other  letter  or  character  in  its  place,  the  work  of  deci- 
phering is  very  easy.  You  have  only  to  count  the  number  of 
times  in  which  the  several  letters  or  characters  occur  in  the  writ- 
ing, and  the  work  is  almost  done  at  once.  The  character  which 
has  the  highest  number  is  of  course  e,  and  the  others  follow  in 
almost  regular  order.  There  are  a  number  of  other  curious  meth- 
ods and  contrivances  which  assist  in  identifying  the  various  letters 
and  characters,  that  I  have  not  time  here  to  explain ;  such  as  if 
the  character  which  stands  for  e  comes  at  the  end  of  a  word  of 
tlu-ee  letters  several  times,  the  other  two  letters  are  probably  t  and 
/i  ;  and  also,  if  any  word  of  a  single  letter  occurs  in  the  course  of 
the  wi-iting,  it  must  be  either  a  or  I,  as  only  those  letters  make 
single  words  in  common  use  in  our  language.  By  these  and  a  few 
other  similar  princijiles.  a  number  of  tlie  characters  are  soon  ascor- 


COMPOSITION.  ."ii> 


Exceptions  to  the  general  rule.  How  the  compositor  mu  the  type. 

taincd,  and  every  one  that  is  thu.s  ascertained  help.s  very  much  to 
disclose  the  next.  Indeed,  thi.s  mode  of -writing  is  so  easiiv  deci- 
phered that  it  is  now  never  used  ;  other  much  more  difficult  meth- 
ods take  its  place. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  su])posed,  from  wliat  has  been  said, 
tliat  the  proportion  of  the  different  letters  as  they  occur  in  dilfercnt 
Looks  is  by  any  means  entirely  uniform.  If  a  writer  of  a  tale,  for 
example,  were  to  choose  such  a  name  as  Zizinc  for  the  heroine  of 
it,  the  compositor,  in  setting  it  up,  would  very  soon  get  out  of  s''s. 
Something  like  this,  substantially,  continually  occurs  ;  that  is,  tiie 
subject  or  character  of  a  work  may  be  such  as  to  occasion  tiie  fre- 
quent recuiTence  of  particular  words,  and  tliis  brings  tiie  letters 
■which  are  contained  in  that  Avord  into  unusual  demand ;  so  tiiat 
different  books  7'U7i,  as  the  compositors  express  it,  upon  dilfercnt 
letters.      Still,  the  general  principle  is  true. 

But  let  us  return  to  tlie  compositor  at  his  case. 

He  does  not  look  at  the  face  of  the  type  to  see  what  letter  it  is 
wiien  he  takes  it  up  and  sets  it  in  the  composing-stick,  but  takes 
it  for  granted,  if  it  comes  from  the  right  compartment,  it  is  the  right 
letter.  He  has  not  time  to  look  at  it  more  than  to  give  it  a  sligiit 
glance  to  see  that  he  puts  it  into  the  composing-stick  right  end  up 
and  right  side  to.  He  is  assisted  in  this  by  what  arc  called  tin* 
nicks  on  the  side  of  the  type,  whicli  arc  small  notches  made  on  the 
side  which  is  to  be  turned  outward  wiicn  the  type  is  set  in  the 
composing-slick.  It  is  much  easier  to  .'^et  the  type  right  by  a 
"glance  at  th^sf  iiolclics,  wliicli  an*  vrrv  (••m.-^piciioiis.  than  to  look 


60  COMPOSITION. 


Facilities  for  composing.  Measuring  by  ems.  An  hour's  work. 

at  the  letter  on  the  face  of  it,  and  sec  which  i.s  the  top  and  which 
is  the  bottom  of  it,  for  this,  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  letters  par- 
ticularly, as,  for  exam2)le,  the  o  and  the  s,  would  require  very  close 
attention. 

Thus  every  possible  arrangement  is  made  to  facilitate  the  work 
of  the  compositor,  and  enable  him  to  get  the  types  up  as  rapidly 
as  possible  from  the  several  compartments,  and  to  place  them  with 
the  least  delay  in  the  right  position  in  the  composing-stick.  By 
means  of  these  facilities — that  is,  by  having  the  types  that  are  most 
frequently  used  placed  nearest  at  hand,  and  having  them  all  mark- 
ed so  that  they  may  be  placed  in  the  right  position  at  a  glance — a 
good  compositor  can  proceed  very  rapidly  w4th  his  work.  He  has 
every  inducement  to  learn  to  work  fast,  for  he  is  paid,  not  by  the 
time,  but  by  the  quantity  of  work  which  he  accomplishes.  The 
number  of  pages  that  he  sets  up  are  measured  from  time  to  time, 
and  the  amount  entered  on  a  schedule ;  then,  at  the  end  of  the 
week  or  fortnight,  he  is  paid  according  to  what  he  has  done.  The 
unit  or  standard  of  measurement  for  the  Avork  is  the  type  of  the 
letter  m  ;  that  type  being  exactly  square  in  its  form,  it  is  easy  to 
measure  by  it,  for  there  will  always  be  as  many  eras  in  a  line  as 
there  are  lines  in  a  space  up  and  down  the  page  equal  to  the  length 
of  the  line. 

To  set  up  a  thousand  ems  in  an  hour  is  considered  pretty  good 
work,  though  some  compositors  will  set  up  fifteen  hundred.  To 
do  this,  however,  the  man  must  be  all  the  time  on  the  alert,  and 
the  motions  both  of  his  eye  and  his  hand  must  be  very  quick  in- 
deed ;  for  we  must  remember  that,  in  a  thousand  ems,  there  are 


COMPOSITION.  (51 


Number  or  types  on  an  average  in  a  ihottnand  ems. 


many  more  tlian  one  thousand  types  to  be  handled,  since  a  great 
many  of  the  types,  the  letter  i  for  example,  and  the  comma,  and 
the  period,  and  the  spaces,  arc  so  tiiin  that  it  would  take  several 
of  them  to  make  an  i/i.  I  learn  that,  ujion  an  average,  tiiere  are 
about  three  times  as  many  types  in  a  page  as  the  number  of  ems 
which  measure  it.  If  this  is  so,  a  man,  in  order  to  set  up  a  thou- 
sand ems  in  an  hour,  has  to  take  up  and  place  three  thousand  dif- 
ferent pieces  of  metal.  And  Avhen  we  consider  that  lit"  has  to  select 
all  these  separate  pieces  from  a  gi*eat  many  ditfcrcnt  conijjartmeuts, 
not  less  than  one  hundred  and  forty  in  all,  some  of  them  almost  as 
far  off  from  him  as  he  can  reach,  and  that  he  must  place  every 
one  in  just  such  a  position  in  the  composing-stick,  and  must  then 
justify  the  line — that  is,  must  adjust  it  exactly  to  the  allotted 
length,  it  is  plain  that  his  movements  must  be  very  active  to  en- 
able him  to  place  three  thousand  of  them  in  an  hour. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  different  men  in  respect  to  their 
natural  capacity  to  make  quick  compositors.  This  difference  does 
not  depend  altogether  on  their  mental  qualities,  such  as  their  en- 
ergy, industry,  and  attention,  but  much,  also,  on  the  physical  con- 
stitution of  the  nerves  and  muscles  of  the  eye  and  the  arm.  There 
is  a  difference  analogous  to  this  in  the  action  of  certain  musical  in- 
struments, such  as  the  piano  or  the  organ.  Some  respond  (juiik- 
er  to  the  touch  than  others,  on  account  of  nice  and  delicate  differ- 
ences in  the  interior  mechanism  ;  that  is,  the  connection  ot  the 
series  of  effects,  whatever  they  are,  which  intervene  between  tiie 
touch  of  the  key  and  the  production  of  the  somul,  in  some  instru- 
ments, is  such  that  the  process  is  run  through  with  great  rapidity, 


62  COMPOSITION. 


Rapid  compositors.  Requisites.  Number  of  motions  to  be  made. 

and  the  sound  follows  the  touch  almost  in  an  instant.  In  others 
it  is  more  slow.  On  instruments  of  the  former  kind,  very  rapid 
music  can  be  played ;  on  the  latter,  only  slow  music,  for  you  can 
go  with  the  succession  of  notes  no  faster  than  the  sounds  can  be 
produced  after  touching  the  keys  ;  in  other  words,  you  can  go  no 
faster  than  the  nature  of  the  instrument  allows.  They  may  be 
excellent  instruments  notwithstanding — that  is,  they  may  be  excel- 
lent for  the  kind  of  music  they  are  adapted  to.  They  may  be 
richer  in  tone,  and  more  perfect  in  every  respect  than  the  others 
except  the  single  one  of  speed. 

It  is  in  some  measure  so  with  the  nerves  and  muscles  of  the 
arm.  When  the  compositor  takes  into  his  eye,  from  the  copy 
which  lies  before  him  on  the  upper  case,  any  particular  sentence 
or  word,  quite  a  long  nervous  and  muscular  process  has  to  be 
gone  through  before  the  types  representing  the  word  find  their 
places  in  the  composing-stick.  His  mind  first  separates  the  word 
into  its  letters.  His  eye  must  then  point  out  the  several  compart- 
ments, one  after  another,  where  the  letters  are  to  be  found.  His 
hand  must  move  to  them,  and  as  he  brings  each  type  in  toward 
the  stick,  his  eye  must  glance  at  it  for  an  instant  to  catch  the  po- 
sition of  the  nicks,  and  to  direct  the  hand  in  respect  to  the  manner 
in  which  the  type  has  to  be  turned,  and  then  must  be  off  again  in 
an  instant  to  find  the  compartment  which  the  next  letter  is  to 
come  from,  in  order  to  be  ready  to  direct  the  hand  there  the  in- 
stant that  the  first  type  is  placed.  Then,  in  turning  the  type 
over,  and  bringing  it  in  a  right  position  into  its  place  in  the  stick, 
several  separate  motions  of  many  different  fingers  are  necessary, 


COMPOSITION'. 


(?3 


Franklin  amusing  himself  in  Iuh  old  age  with  composing. 


eacli  of  Avliich  requires  a  distinct  volition  of  tlie  mind,  and  a  dis- 
tinct transmission  of  orders  down  the  nerves  of  tlie  arm.  In  a 
Avord,  the  whole  process,  quick  as  a  skillful  compositor  is  in  tlie 
performance  of  it,  is  extremely  complicated  in  its  nature,  and  it 
can  oidy  Le  performed  at  the  rate  of  over  a  tliousan<l  ems  the  hour 
])y  men  whose  nervous  and  muscidar  machinery  is  in  tlie  most  jK-r- 
fect  possible  condition.  There  arc  many  men  who,  though  they 
may  be  excellently-well  qualiiied  for  a  huncbed  other  things,  can 
oidy  make  slow  nuisic  in  composing. 

Still,  to  those  Avho  j)crlurni  it 
well,  it  is  an  easy  and  an  agreea- 
ble occupation.  The  famous  j)hi- 
losopher  and  statesman,  lienjamin 
[•'ranklin,  who  was  a  j)rinter  in 
early  life,  "was  accustomed,  in  liis 
old  age,  to  amuse  himself  with  set- 
ting types  and  printing  with  liis 
OA\ni  hand,  in  the  use  of  a  small 
and  convenient  apparatus  nuule 
ex])ressly  for  the  jmrpose. 

The  success  of  a  compositor, 
however,  does  not  by  any  means 
depend  altogetlu-r  on  llicsc  j)liys- 
ical  advantages.  In  this,  as  in  all  other  labors,  they  wiio  are  in- 
tent on  their  Avork,  who  are  diligent  and  j)erscv«'re,  and  who  give 
their  thoughts  closely  to  what  they  arc  doing,  and  arc  systematic, 
regular,  and  careful,  so  as  to  make  the  setting  right,  as  nearly  as 


FRANKLIN. 


64  COMPOSITION. 


Errora.  Justifying.  The  lines  must  be  all  of  equal  length. 

possible,  the  first  time,  always,  in  the  end,  win  the  day  over  the 
brilliant  geniuses  who  dash  on  carelessly,  right  or  wrong,  and  aft- 
erward lose  a  great  deal  of  their  time  in  correcting  errors ;  for  ev- 
ery compositor  has  his  o^vn  work  to  con-ect.  I  will  now  describe 
how  this  is  done. 

As  he  goes  on  setting  up  the  type  in  the  composing-stick,  he 
places  a  short  type  at  the  end  of  every  word  to  make  the  space 
which,  on  the  printed  page,  is  to  separate  one  word  from  another. 
When  he  gets  to  the  end  of  a  line,  if  the  work  comes  right,  very 
well ;  if  not,  he  makes  it  right  by  widening  or  narroAving  the  in- 
tervals between  the  words  by  means  of  very  thin  spaces,  kept  for 
the  purpose.  This  process  of  tilling  out  the  lines  is  called  justi- 
fying. It  takes  about  a  quarter  as  much  time  to  justify  the  line 
as  it  does  to  pick  up  and  place  the  letters  of  wliich  it  is  com- 
posed. While  justifying  the  line,  the  eye  of  the  compositor  usu- 
ally runs  along  the  line,  and  detects  most  of  the  errors  tliat  may 
have  been  made,  and  then  corrects  them  before  he  proceeds.  It 
is,  of  course,  necessary  that  every  luie  of  type  should  fill  the 
whole  breadth  of  the  page  or  column  exactly,  so  that  when  the 
page  or  column  is  wedged  up,  the  types  of  every  line  may  be  held 
tight  in  their  places  by  the  pressure  of  their  neighbors.  If  the 
line  is  a  broken  one,  as,  for  instance,  one  at  the  end  of  a  para- 
graph, then  the  whole  remaining  space  is  filled  up  with  pieces  of 
metal  similar  to  those  placed  between  the  words,  only  of  much 
larger  size.  iVll  this  may  be  seen  plainly  represented  in  the  spec- 
imen which  is  set  up  in  the  composing-stick  on  page  56.  The 
compositor  proceeds,  thus  setting  up  line  after  line  in  liis  compos- 


COMPOSITION.  65 


The  rule.  The  galley.  Pi.  Ttie  eliaae. 

ing-stick,  until  the  stick  i.s  full.  In  order  to  keep  the  line  that 
he  is  at  work  upon  separate  from  the  rest,  and  to  facilitate  the 
motion  of  the  types  in  sliding  into  their  places,  he  has  a  small  tin 
or  brass  plate,  called  a  rule,  which  he  takes  out  from  behind  each 
line  as  soon  as  the  line  is  completed,  and  places  it  above,  so  as 
to  make  a  smooth  floor,  as  it  were,  to  set  the  new  line  upon.  With 
this  rule,  too,  he  takes  up  the  wliole  mass  of  t}-])e  when  the  com- 
posing-stick is  full,  and  places  it  away  on  what  is  called  a  galley. 

The  galley  is  an  oblong  board,  with  a  margin  about  half  an 
incli  high  on  two  sides  of  it,  to  keep  the  types  that  are  placed  on 
it  from  falling  down.  It  requires  great  skill  and  dexterity,  how- 
ever, to  handle  the  types  wlien  set,  and  to  transfer  them  from  thr 
composing-stick  to  the  galleys,  and  to  move  them  about  there,  in 
the  work  of  forming  them  into  pages,  and  such  other  operations. 
AVith  practice,  the  compositors  acquire  gi'cat  dexterity  in  these 
manipulations,  and,  to  the  eye  of  the  observer,  they  move  the 
masses  of  type  about  as  if  they  were  so  many  solid  blocks  of  met- 
al. Sometimes,  however,  an  accident  happens ;  a  mass  of  tyjH- 
falls  upon  the  floor,  and  of  course  becomes  a  perfectly  confu.^ed 
melange.     This  is  called  j}i. 

When  the  galleys  arc  full,  the  ■matter,  as  the  mass  of  ty]ie  sot 
up  is  called,  is  formed  into  pages,  and  })laccd  in  a  frame  called  a 
c/iase  to  be  proved.  A  chase  is  a  iVaine  of  iron,  divided  into  com- 
partments like  the  sash  of  a  window,  l^ach  compartment  is  in- 
tended to  contain  one  or  more  pages  of  type,  and  tlie  frame  is  made 
of  iron,  with  strong  bars  crossing  e.ach  other  to  form  the  compart- 
ments, in  order  tliaf    each   j)age  of  type   may  be  wedt^'d  in  very 


(56 


COMPOSITION. 


Furnituro  and  quoins. 


Young  Franklin  carrying  the  forms. 


firmly,  so  as  to  hold  every  type  securely  in  its  place.  To  do  this, 
they  place  small  wooden  bars  along  the  sides  and  ends  of  each 
page,  and  then  drive  wedges  in  between  these  bars  and  the  iron 
sides  of  the  compartment  in  which  the  page  is  placed.  Of  coui'se 
the  compartments  of  the  chase  are  made  larger  than  the  page  or 
pages  intended  to  be  put  in  them,  in  order  to  afford  room  for  these 
bars  and  wedges.  The  printers  call  these  bars  furniture  /  the 
wedges  are  called  quoins. 

The  pages  of  tj-pe  are 
wedged  up  so  firmly  in 
the  chase  as  to  form,  as  it 
were,  one  solid  and  com- 
pact mass,  which  can  be 
carried  from  place  to  place 
with  perfect  safety.  In 
former  times,  when  it  was 
more  the  custom  than  it  is 
now  to  print  directly  from 
types,  these  forms  had  oft- 
en to  be  earned  to  and  fro 
between  the  composing- 
room  and  the  press-room. 
The  engraving  represents 
Benjamin  Franklin,  when 
a  journeyman  printer,  car- 
rying; two  of  them  at  the 
same  time,  to   sliow   the 


COMPOSITION.  (;7 


Printing  from  typo.  Stereotyping.  Electrotyplng. 

Other  workmen  that,  though  lie  drank  no  strong  drink,  lie  pos- 
sessed as  much  muscular  strength  as  any  of  tlicin. 

The  custom  of  printing  from  standing  type  is  not  wholly  discon- 
tinued, by  any  means,  at  the  present  day.  ^Vll  newspapers,  and 
many  books,  are  still  printed  directly  from  the  types.  We  often 
see  these  fonns  now,  even  in  the  street,  as  they  are  being  convey- 
ed from  the  composing-rooms,  where  the  types  have  been  set  up 
and  made  ready,  to  the  great  jninting-officcs  where  they  are  to  be 
Avorked  on  the  immense  presses  of  modern  times,  driven  by  stwim. 
These  forms,  made  up  of  the  types  themselves,  are  very  massive 
and  heavy,  and  there  is  great  inconvenience  in  printing  from  them. 

In  order  to  avoid  printing  directly  from  the  types,  atcreoti/jiiiuj 

was  for  a  lono;  time  in  use.     This  consisted  ui  taking  a  mould  in 
o  o 

plaster  of  Paris  from  each  page  of  type,  and  then  pouring  melteil 
type-metal  into  the  mould,  thus  producing  a  perfect  cast  of  the 
surface  of  the  page,  and  the  printing  was  done  from  these  stereo- 
type plates,  lieccntly,  however,  an  improvement  called  eleetro- 
ti/j)i)i(j  has  been  introduced. 

In  the  Harper  lOstabiishmcnt  almost  every  thing  at  jnrsent  is 
electrotyped.  Tiie  pages  of  ty^cs,  are  therefore  only  locked  up 
in  small  chases  containing  one  to  four  pages  each,  for  the  elei-t re- 
typing ])rocess.  TJie  first  thing  is,  however,  to  make;  tlicin  cor- 
rect;  for,  notwithstanding  all  possible  care  on  llu-  j»;irt  ot  the 
compositor,  many  of  the  tyjies  in  every  page  will  be  found,  on  the 
first  trial,  to  be  wrong.  In  order  to  correct  the  errors,  the  form 
containing  the  page  to  be  produced  is  placed  upon  a  small  hand- 
press,  and  an  impression  is  taken.     The  types  an-  inked  Iiy  nn-aii-* 


68 


COMPOSITION. 


The  roller  for  inking. 


Composition  of  the  rollers. 


THE   ROLLED 


of  a  roller  covered  witli 
ink,  which  the  workman 
rolls  back  and  fortli  over 
the  pages.  The  form  of 
this  roller  and  the  manner 
of  its  operation  are  seen 
in  the  above  engraving. 

The  ink  is  taken  up  by  the  roller  from  a  sort  of  table  that 
stands  near.  This  ink  is  not  liquid,  like  writing-ink,  but  is  thick 
and  \Tiscid,  like  pitch ;  and  a  small  quantity  of 
it  is  taken  up  by  the  roller  from  the  table, 
where  it  has  been  previously  spread  out  evenly 
and  thin,  and  is  thence  transferred  to  the  faces 
of  the  types.  In  former  times,  balls  were  used 
for  the  purpose  of  inking  the  type.  These 
balls  were  of  the  form  represented  in  the  ad- 
joining engraving.  The  workman  distributed 
the  ink  evenly  over  the  balls  by  working  and 
rolling  the  faces  of  them  together  by  means  of  the  handles  attach- 
ed to  them,  and  then  he  would  apply  the  ink  from  them  to  the 
faces  of  the  types  in  the  same  manner.  This,  however,  was  a  veiy 
laborious  and  slow  operation,  and  the  invention  of  the  roller  has 


THE  BALLS. 


greatly  facilitated  the  process  of  inking  the  type.     In 


the  great 


*  These  rollers  are  made  of  a  composition  of  glue  and  molasses,  boiled  together,  and 
then  cast  in  iron  moulds,  made  perfectly  smooth  inside.  In  the  centre  of  the  mould 
is  a  wooden  core  passing  through  from  end  to  end,  with  iron  pivots  in  the  extremities 
f>f  it.  which,  when  the  roller  is  finished,  becomes  the  spindle  on  which  it  revolves. 


PKOOFS    AM)    (OliKKCriNC.  ♦;«> 


The  inking.  Tlie  liand-press.  Errora  in  composition. 


power-presses  now  in  general  u.se  in  all  the  great  printing  estaln 
lishment.s,  there  is  a  system  of  these  rollers  incorporated  in  tlic  ma- 
chinery, so  that  the  types  of  the  largest  forms  are  inked  witiiont 
any  manual  labor  whatever.  This  will  be  explained  more  fully 
by-and-by. 

CliAPTEU   Vil. 

PKUOFS    AND    OntRECTINiJ. 

The  proof,  that  is,  the  tirst  impression  trom  the  type,  mailc  to 
enable  the  proof-reader  to  examine  his  work,  and  to  mark  the  nec- 
essary con*ections,  is  taken,  as  has  already  been  said,  on  a  small 
pres.s,  in  contradistinction  from  tlic  power-presses  tiiat  are  worked 
by  steam  and  machinery.  One  or  more  of  these  liand-presses 
stand  in  the  composing-room  for  the  purj)0.se  of  taking  proofs. 
A  view  of  one  of  them  is  given  on  page  1 16,  where  it  will  Ix'  fully 
described.  The  impression  is  taken  on  a  small  sheet — a  quantity 
of  such  sheets,  previously  dampened,  being  always  ready  at  hand 
for  this  purpose.  The  best  proofs  contain  some  errors,  and  most 
proofs  many.  Words  are  misspelled  by  tlie  accidental  substitu- 
tion of  one  letter  for  another:  spaces  are  omitted:  now  and  then  a 
letter  is  Avrong  side  up  ;  and  perliaps  a  period  or  a  note  of  interro- 
gation, instead  of  taking  its  })lace  ])ropcrly  at  the  end  of  the  sen- 
tence, has  intruded  into  the  middle  of  a  word.  It  woidd,  I  have 
no  doubt,  amuse  those  of  my  readers  who  have;  never  seen  a  proof, 
if  I  were  to  insert  a  specimen  here,  with  jUI  its  errors,  just  as  they 
appeal-  wlicii  tlie  fust  impression  is  taken:    I'ut  if!   were  to  pro- 


70  I'liOOFS   AND   CORRECTING. 

Marks  for  correcting  proofs.  Correcting  the  errors. 

pose  to  do  such  a  thing,  I  presume  there  is  not  a  printer  in  the 
llarj)er  Establishment  who  would  not  be  shocked  at  the  idea  of 
allowing  any  matter  in  such  a  state  to  go  out  into  the  world  at  all, 
on  the  pages  of  such  a  work  as  this,  even  as  a  curiosity. 

When  the  proof  has  been  taken,  the  proof-reader  examines  it 
carefully,  and  marks  all  the  errors.  Printers  have  a  peculiar  set 
of  marks  for  the  purjiose  of  calling  the  attention  of  the  compositor 
to  the  several  errors,  and  to  direct  him  how  they  are  to  be  cor- 
rected. The  compositor  takes  the  form  containing  the  pages  of 
type  which  are  to  be  corrected  to  a  sort  of  high  table,  which  is  of  a 
very  solid  and  substantial  construction,  and  there,  after  having 
loosened  the  pages  by  driving  back  the  wedges  by  which  they 
were  "locked  up,"  he  proceeds  to  make  the  corrections  by  taking 
out  the  types  that  were  wrong,  and  putting  in  right  ones  in  their 
place.  In  pulling  up  the  types  that  are  to  come  out,  he  uses  a 
sort  of  bodkin  or  awl,  with  a  sharp  point.  This  he  presses  against 
the  side  of  the  type  that  is  to  come  up,  and  thus  draws  it  out,  and 
then  puts  the  right  one  in  its  place.  When  the  errors  consist  sim- 
ply of  wrong  letters,  the  corrections  are  easily  made ;  but  if  he 
has  omitted  any  word,  or  has  inserted  any  not  found  in  the  copy, 
it  is  more  difficult  to  manage  them.  If  the  word  to  be  put  in  is 
short,  he  can  sometimes  do  it  by  taking  out  the  spaces  between 
the  words  and  putting  in  thinner  ones,  thus  making  room  for  the 
new  word.  So  he  may  sometimes  take  out  a  small  superfluous 
word,  and  fill  out  the  line  by  putting  in  thicker  spaces.  When 
there  are  very  wide  spaces  between  the  words  in  any  line,  it  is 
(i.sually  because  the  compositor  has  taken  out  a  word  in  this  way. 


PJ400FS   AND   COKRECTING.  71 

Reading  the  proof  by  copy.  Distributing  the  type. 

But  lie  is  not  allowed  to  make  the  spacing  so  wide  as  to  injure  the 
appearance  of  the  page.  If  he  can  not  get  in  or  take  out  the  word 
in  this  way,  he  has  to  overrun  the  matter,  as  it  is  called ;  that  is, 
to  carry  forward  one  or  more  words  from  each  line  to  the  next, 
down  to  the  end  of  the  paragi-aph.  When  t!ie  corrections  are  all 
made,  the  pages  are  locked  ujd  again,  and  are  then  returned  to  the 
press,  in  order  that  a  new  proof  may  be  taken. 

The  process  of  proving  the  work  is  repeated  several  times  before 
it  is  found  to  be  quite  coiTCct.  Once  it  is  read  over  carefidly  "by 
copy,"  as  it  is  called,  that  is,  by  the  manuscript ;  and  Hnally,  aft- 
er it  seems  to  be  right,  it  is  sent  to  the  author,  that  he  may  give 
it  a  final  revision.  \.i  he  has  made  his  manuscript  correct  in  the 
first  instance,  and  if  the  compositor  and  proof-reader  have  done 
their  work  properly,  his  revise  will  come  back  with  very  ifi.\j  marks 
upon  it.  The  final  corrections,  however,  which  the  author  directs, 
having  been  made,  the  pages  are  ready  to  be  sent  to  the  clcctro- 
typing-room,  in  order  that  a  copper  fac  simile  of  the  face  of  it  may 
be  formed  in  a  thin  plate,  for  more  convenient  handling.  AVhen 
this  is  done,  the  pages  of  type  are  returned  to  tlic  compositor  who 
set  them  up,  in  order  to  be  distributed. 

The  process  of  distributing  the  type — that  is,  of  putting  back  the 
letters  in  the  several  compartments  of  the  case  where  they  belong, 
seems  very  surprising  to  those  who  first  witness  it,  on  account  of 
the  great  rapidity  with  which  it  is  performed.  The  compositor 
takes  up  a  luimber  of  lines  of  type  on  his  rule,  having  previously 
wet  the  whole  page.  This  wetting  causes  the  types  to  adhere  to- 
gether slightly,  and  makes  it  mucii  more  easy  to  manipulate  them. 


72  I'JiOOF.S    AND    COKUECTING. 


Importance  of  correct  distribution  Bad  management  of  authors. 

The  compositor  proceeds  to  take  up  several  words  at  a  time,  and 
tlien,  hy  a  very  dexterous  motion,  lie  throws  off  the  several  letters 
into  their  various  compartments,  moving  his  hand  for  this  purpose 
with  astonishing  rapidity,  to  and  fro,  all  about  the  case.  A  com- 
positor Avill  distribute  five  or  six  times  faster  than  he  can  com- 
pose. 

The  success  of  the  compositor,  in  all  his  work,  depends  very 
much  indeed  upon  the  correctness  of  his  distribution ;  for,  of 
course,  if  he  has  wrong  type  in  any  compartment,  those  type  will 
come  up  when  he  is  setting,  and  fill  his  proof  with  errors.  It  is 
very  seldom  that  he  sees  the  face  of  a  type  when  he  is  composing  ; 
he  can  not  stop  to  identify  the  letter  in  that  way ;  he  only  looks 
at  the  compartment  fi^om  which  it  comes,  and  at  the  nicks  in  the 
side  of  it,  in  order  to  know  in  what  position  to  place  it.  Of  course, 
the  correctness  of  his  composition  is  greatly  dependent  upon  the 
correctness  of  his  distribution. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  different  compositors  in  respect  to 
the  accuracy  of  their  work.  Some  proceed  Avith  so  much  system 
and  care,  that  the  whole  amount  of  correcting  which  their  work 
requires  is  not  more  than  an  hour  or  two  a  week.  Others  have  to 
lose  as  much  time  or  more  every  day.  This,  of  course,  is  so  much 
deducted  from  their  earnings,  since  compositors  are  only  paid  for  * 
the  amount  of  corrected  work  that  they  do. 

Authors  often  unconsciously  add  to  the  labors  of  the  compos- 
itor by  inconsiderate  management  of  various  kinds,  especially  by 
making  additions  and  alterations  to  their  writing  in  the  proof,  so 
that,  after  the  compositor  has  once  set  up  the  work,  and  taken  a 


PliOOFS   AND   COKRECTING.  73 


Follow  copy.  Two  good  rules  for  young  auibors. 

great  deal  of  pains,  by  two  or  three  corrections,  to  get  it  precisely 
according  to  the  copy,  and  then  sends  a  proof  to  the  author  to  see 
if  it  is  right,  it  comes  back  marked  with  numerous  chamjes,  and 
thus  the  work  has  all  to  be  done,  as  it  were,  over  again.  It  would 
seem,  sometimes,  that  the  author  makes  use  of  the  first  labors  of 
the  compositor  merely  to  obtain  a  fair  copy  of  the  manuscript,  in 
order  that  he  may  more  conveniently  correct  and  improve  it.  The 
compositor,  however,  receives  pay  for  making  any  alterations  from 
copy,  lie  keeps  an  account  of  the  time  so  employed,  and  charges 
for  them.  This  is,  of  course,  no  more  than  right,  as  his  proper 
business  is  merely  to  "follow  copy." 

There  are  two  rides  to  be  strictly  observed  by  all  persons  whu 
write  any  thing  for  the  press : 

1.  Finish  the  writing  of  your  book  or  article  before  you  begin 
the  printing  of  it.  In  other  words,  make  the  copy  perfect,  just  as 
you  wish  tlie  work  to  appear,  before  you  put  it  into  the  printer's 
hands,  so  that,  if  possible,  no  alterations  wliatever  may  be  required 
after  it  is  once  in  type. 

2.  In  preparing  the  copy  which  you  intend  for  the  compositor, 
write  only  on  one  side  of  the  sheet  of  paper,  and  write  in  a  plain, 
distinct,  and  legible  hand,  every  Avord  in  full,  and  all  the  para- 
graphs, divisions,  lieadings,  and  stops,  and  other  marks,  just  as 
you  wish  them  to  appear.  The  compositor's  rule  is  to  contorm  to 
the  copy  precisely  in  all  these  particulars.  Indeed,  the  rule  whicii 
Benjamin  Franklin  gave  to  the  journeymen  in  liis  otiice,  and  which 
is,  in  some  sense,  the  rule  of  all  good  compositors  to  the  present 
d.iv.  was.  Follow  vour  copv,  if  you  ti)llow  it  out  of  (lie   window. 


74  TYPE-FOUNDING. 


Type-founding.  Visit  to  a  foundry.  Conversation  with  the  proprietor. 

It  unfortunately  happens  that  some  authors  are  so  careless  with 
then-  manuscripts,  that,  in  following  this  nile  when  setting  up  for 
them,  the  poor  compositor  gets  sent,  as  it  were,  out  of  the  wmdow 
very  often. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

TYPE-FOUNDING. 

I  HAD  often  heard  that  the  making  of  types  was  an  exceedingly 
ingenious  and  curious  process,  and  when  I  had  finished  the  fore- 
going description  of  the  manner  in  which  these  little  wonder-work- 
ers are  set  up,  it  occurred  to  my  mind  that  it  would  be  a  good  plan 
for  me  to  visit  one  of  the  principal  foundries  in  New  York,  and  see 
for  myself  how  the  work  of  manufacturing  them  was  performed. 
I  accordingly  called  upon  the  Messrs.  Harj:)er,  and  asked  one  of 
the  gentlemen  for  the  address  of  one  of  the  foundries  from  which 
they  obtained  their  supplies.  He  accordingly  gave  me  the  ad- 
dress, and  I  immediately  proceeded  to  the  t}^e-founding  establish- 
ment. One  of  the  proprietors  received  me  A'ery  kindly,  and  con- 
ducted me  through  the  rooms  to  witness  the  different  processes. 

"  In  former  times,"  said  he,  as  we  walked  together  up  stairs  in 
going  to  the  upper  stories  of  the  building,  where  the  various  oper- 
ations of  the  manufactory  were  carried  on,  "in  former  times,  it 
was  customary  to  cast  types  in  httle  moulds  held  in  the  hand,  the 
melted  metal  being  poured  in  from  a  small  ladle,  but  now  they  are 
made  far  more  rapidly  by  means  of  a  machine." 

lie  also  explained  to  me  the  composition  and  the  properties  of 


TYPE-FOUNDING.  75 


Qualities  or  good  type  metal.  Composition  or  it. 

tlie  metal  used  for  the  casting.  It  seems  that  it  must  possess  the 
following  properties :  It  must  be  hard.,  but  not  too  britthi.  It 
nm.st  also  be  easily  fused,  and  not  subject  to  rust. 

It  must  be  hard ;  for,  if  it  were  soft,  like  lead,  the  face  of  the 
type  would  not  stand  under  the  great  pressure  required  in  print- 
ing, and  the  edges  of  the  letter,  too,  would  be  battered  and  bruised 
from  the  little  knocks  which  the  t>^es  necessarily  get  from  each 
other  in  the  processes  of  being  set  up  and  distributed. 

For  a  similar  reason,  it  must  not  be  brittle,  for  then  the  edges 
would  break  and  crumble. 

It  must  be  easily  fusible.  Iron,  for  example,  docs  not  melt  at 
less  than  a  red  heat,  and  it  would  be  exti-emely  dithcult,  if  not  im- 
possible, to  manage  such  small  castings  jat  so  great  a  temperature. 

It  must  be  a  metal,  too,  not  subject  to  rust ;  for,  in  using  tlie 
types,  it  is  often  necessary  to  wet  them,  and  thus,  if  they  were 
made  of  any  easily  oxydizable  metal,  they  would  soon  become 
rusted  and  spoiled.*  For  this  reason,  therefore,  as  well  as  for  the 
other,  iron  would  not  answer  for  types. 

In  fact,  there  is  no  one  simple  metal  that  is  suitable.  There  is 
some  good  and  valid  objection  to  every  one.  The  type-makers 
have,  iiowever,  discovered  a  compound  of  three  metals  which  an- 
swers the  purpose  very  well.      The  three  metals  are  lead,  tin,  and 

*  When  iron  rusts,  the  metal  combines  at  the  surface  with  one  of  the  componrnts 
of  water,  called  oxygen.  This  compound  of  iron  and  oxygen  forms  the  lirown  powder 
which  we  call  rust.  Lcad^vihcn  thus  combined  with  oxyxcn.  forms  a  irhitr  powder, 
and  sometimes  a  red  powder.  But  lead  will  not  combine  with  the  oxyjim  by  simple 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  or  cont.irt  with  water,  as  iron  will.  I,cad,  therefore,  is 
said  not  to  be  easily  oxydizable 


76  TYPE-FOUNDING. 


Examination  of  a  specimen.  The  casting-room.  Pin  machine. 

antimony.  Neither  of  them  by  itself  would  make  a  good  type, 
but,  combined  together  in  certain  proportions,  they  form  just  the 
material  that  is  required.  The  compound  melts  easily,  and  it  be- 
comes hard,  but  not  brittle,  when  cold.  Then  there  is  another 
point  which  is  of  great  importance,  namely,  that  it  does  not  shrink 
much  in  cooling.  If  the  metal  were  to  shrink  in  cooling,  then  the 
face  of  the  type  would  lose  its  fullness  and  sharpness  of  form,  and 
thus  become  more  or  less  imperfect  and  irregular. 

While  the  proprietor  of  the  foundry  was  explaining  these  tilings 
to  me  on  the  way  up  stairs,  he  stopped  at  a  little  office  in  one  of 
the  rooms  to  show  me  some  specimens  of  type  metal.  He  cut 
some  of  these  with  a  knife,  to  let  me  see  how  hard  and  tough  the 
metal  was.  It  seemed  to  be  harder  than  lead,  but  not  nearly  so 
hard  as  copper. 

Soon  after  this  we  entered  the  casting-room,  which  was  in  the 
upper  story  of  the  building.  There  was  a  range  of  workmen  all 
around  the  room,  each  busy  casting  type  at  his  little  machine. 
The  machines  had  each  its  own  separate  iui-nace  and  reservoir  of 
metal,  so  that  they  looked  like  so  many  little  forges  ranged  in  or- 
der all  about  the  room. 

We  walked  up  toward  one  of  the  machines  that  stood  near  a 
window,  to  witness  the  operation  of  it.  I  was  greatly  astonished 
at  the  spectacle.  I  have  seen  very  ingenious  mechanical  contriv- 
ances before — those  for  making  pins,  for  example — where  a  coil  of 
wire  is  drawn  in  at  one  end  of  the  machine,  and  pins  drop  out  of 
the  other  almost  as  fast  as  you  can  count  them.  But  this  seemed 
more  surprising  still,  for  it  was  a  mass  of  hot,  melted  metal,  bub- 


TYPE-FOUNDING. 


77 


Operation  or  the  type  machine. 


The  mould. 


Operation  or  it. 


Hing  and  simmering,  as  it 
Averc,  over  its  little  furnace 
that  supplied  the  material. 
By  the  simple  turning  ot* 
a  crank  on  the  part  of  the 
operator,  as  a  hoy  would 
turn  a  small  grind.'^tone  or 
a  coffee-mill,  this  melted 
metal  was  taken  u}>,  a  lit- 
tle at  a  time,  at  tlie  upper 
part  of  the  machine,  and 
dropped  out  in  types  be- 
low, cool  and  solid. 

But  I  must  describe  the 
machine  a  little  more  par- 
ticularly. It  appeared  to 
be  complicated  in  its  con- 
stniction,  but  tlic  princi- 
ple of  its  operation,  as  is  usually  the  case,  indeed,  with  all  great 
inventions,  was  very  simple.  The  essential  thing  is  a  mould  to 
cast  the  types  in,  made  in  parts,  so  as  to  open  for  tlie  purjiose 
of  letting  the  type  drop  out,  and  tlicn  to  sluit  up  togctlicr  again 
very  clo.sely  and  exactly.  U'he  several  parts  fonning  the  mould 
are  so  connected  Avith  macliinery  worked  by  the  crank  that  they 
are  o})ened  and  shut  again  every  time  tlie  crank  is  turned  once 
round. 

Jiesides  this  action  of  oj)e)iing  and  shutting  the  mould,  with  all 


78  TYPE-FOUNDING. 


The  little  force-pump.  Types  caught  by  an  apron. 

the  complicated  mechanism  which  is  connected  with  it,  it  has  an- 
other movement.  Eveiy  time  the  crank  revolves,  it  is  brought  up 
to  what  miglit  he  called  the  mouth  of  the  furnace,  to  receive  the 
supply  of  melted  metal,  and  then  is  brought  away  again.  This 
mouth  is  very  small,  the  orifice  not  being  much  larger,  perhaps, 
than  a  large  pin-hole.  At  the  instant  the  mouth  of  the  mould  is 
brought  up  in  contact  with  'this  little  opening  by  the  moving  of 
the  crank,  a  jet  of  melted  metal,  just  enough  to  fill  the  mould,  is 
forced  in  by  means  of  a  small  force-pump  in  the  reservou".  This 
force-pump  is  worked  by  the  same  crank  which  gives  motion  to 
the  mould.  In  a  Avord,  the  machine  is  so  contrived  that  the  oper- 
ator, by  simply  turning  this  crank,  brings  up  the  mould  to  the 
furnace,  pumps  in  enough  of  metal  for  the  casting  of  one  type, 
witlidraws  the  mould,  opens  it  to  let  the  type  drop  out,  and  then 
puts  the  mould  together  again  for  a  fresh  operation. 

The  types,  though  cool  enough  to  be  solid  when  they  droj^,  are 
still  very  hot.  They  are  caught,  therefore,  as  they  fall,  upon  a 
little  paper  apron  under  the  machine,  and  thence,  cooling  as  they 
go,  they  are  gradually  shaken  down  by  the  types  that  continue  to 
fall  upon  the  apron  from  above,  and  finally  descend  into  a  box 
placed  a  little  below  to  receive  them. 

The  operation  was  performed  with  astonishing  rapidity.  I  took 
out  my  watch  while  standing  near  one  of  the  fastest  of  the  ma- 
chines, in  order  to  see  how  rapidly  the  types  were  produced  by  it. 
I  found  that  thirty-six  types  were  dropped  in  a  quarter  of  a  min- 
ute, or  over  eight  thousand  in  an  hour.  It  is  true  that  this  ma- 
chine was  casting  small  type,  and  that  it  worked  faster  than  most 


TYPE-FOITNDTNG.  79 


Duties  of  the  type-founder.  Great  care  requisite.  The  jet. 

others  in  the  room.      The  average,  however,  coukl  not  have  Lcen 
less  than  two  thousand  in  an  liour. 

It  is  by  no  means  to  be  supposed,  liowever,  that  because  tlic 
operation  of  the  machine  thus  described  seems  so  simjjle,  the  arti- 
san who  works  it  has  nothing  to  do  but  to  turn  a  crank.  This  is, 
indeed,  all  the  mechanical  work  that  he  has  to  perfonn,  but  in  the 
exercise  of  judgment,  skill,  and  discretion,  he  has  a  great  deal  to 
do.  He  must  watch  his  furnace  and  his  reservoir  of  melted  met- 
al, to  see  that  the  metal  is  always  of  the  proper  temperature.  He 
must  be  careful,  too,  that  he  docs  not  turn  the  machine  too  fast, 
for  this  Avould  heat  the  mould  too  much,  and  thus  prevent  tlie  })er- 
fect  fonu  of  tlie  type.  He  must  continually  keep  his  eye  on  the 
little  orifice  where  the  metal  is  ejected  from  the  reservoir,  to  see 
that  all  is  right  there,  and  that  no  little  globules  of  melted  metal 
remain  on  the  outside  of  it  to  prevent  a  perfect  junction  of  the  face 
of  the  mould  with  the  outside  suriace.  In  a  word,  a  person,  to 
be  a  good  type-founder,  notwithstanding  all  the  help  he  obtains 
from  his  machine,  must  be  a  man  of  great  skill,  careful  judgment, 
and  practical  dexterity. 

The  metal,  in  being  injected  or  forced  into  the  mould,  passes 
through  an  opening,  which  forms  a  sort  of  long,  slender  funnel, 
which  enters  at  the  lower  end  of  the  mould.  This  fun- 
nel itself,  as  well  as  the  mould,  becomes  filled  with  met- 
al, so  that,  when  tlie  type  drops  upon  tlie  jiajier  below 
this  metal  remains  attached  to  it  in  the  form  of  a  long 
and  slender  wedge-shaped  projection  called  a  />/,  which 
THE  iKT     if*   represented    in   the    adjoining    engraving.      This  jet 


80  TYPE-FOUNDING. 


Process  or  breaking.  Very  rapid  and  dexterous  performance  of  it. 

must,  of  course,  be  removed  in  the  process  of  finishing  the  type. 
Indeed,  the  removing  of  it  is  the  lirst  step  in  the  finishing  process. 

They  break  it  off.  It  breaks  very  easily,  being  quite  slender 
at  the  point  of  its  junction  with  the  type.  One  would  not  suppose 
that  there  would  be  any  thing  particularly  curious  or  interesting 
in  so  simple  an  operation  as  this,  but  I  found  it  quite  curious, 
on  account  of  the  great  rapidity  with  which  the  boys,  whose  busi- 
ness it  is,  perform  it,  and  the  arrangements  which  were  made  to 
iacilitate  the  work.  The  process  is  called  breaking,  and  the  boys 
who  do  it  are  called  breakers. 

The  breaker  is  seated,  when  at  work,  at  a  sort  of  low  table,  witli 
sides  all  around  it,  to  prevent  the  types  from  tailing  upon  the  floor. 
The  centre  of  the  table  directly  before  him  is  covered  with  a  sort 
of  cushion,  or,  rather,  as  perliaps  I  ought  to  say,  the  bottom  of  the 
box  which  the  table  forms  is  lined  with  a  sort  of  cushion  covered 
Avith  smooth  leather.  At  one  end  of  the  table,  within  the  box,  is 
a  great  pile  of  types,  with  the  jets  attached  to  them,  just  as  they 
come  from  the  moulds.  These  the  boy  continually  draws  down 
upon  the  surface  of  the  cushion,  where  he  breaks  oflT  the  jets  from 
them  with  an  inconceivably  rapid  motion  of  the  fingers,  and  then 
separates  the  parts  by  pushing  the  jets  one  way  and  the  tj^es 
another.  The  boy  whom  I  watched  performed  the  operation  so 
rapidly  that,  with  the  closest  observation,  I  could  not  follow  the 
motions  of  his  finoers  at  all,  or  see  bv  what  means  he  contrived  to 
accomplish  the  object. 

Of  course,  at  the  point  where  the  jet  was  broken  off,  the-  mark 
of  the  fracture  would  remain  at  the  end  of  the  type,  producing  a 


Til^E-FULNDlNG.  81 


Rubbing.  Description  of  the  stones.  Mould  not  perfectly  tigbt. 

sort  of  blemish.  It  was  curious  to  see  how  siin})ly  and  easily  tliis 
mark  was  afterward  removed.  A  long  row  of  the  types  were  set 
up  together,  side  by  side,  in  a  long  and  slender  frame,  and  then  a 
little  plane,  tlie  rim  of  which  came  almost  to  a  point,  and  was  ground 
at  the  end  to  the  form  of  an  exceedingly  small  gouge,  was  passed 
along  the  whole  line,  and  thus,  by  a  single  stroke  of  the  tool,  the 
fractured  portion  was  cut  out  from  the  ends  of  hundreds  of  types 
at  a  time. 

The  next  process  to  breaking  was  what  was  called  rubbing. 
The  rubbing  was  the  work  of  women  and  girls.  The  room  where 
this  operation  was  pertbrmed  had  two  or  three  long  low  tables  ex- 
tending through  it  from  end  to  end,  with  what  seemed  to  be  a  row 
of  grindstones  lying  upon  them.  These  stones  were  large  and  not 
very  thick,  and  they  were  lying  on  their  sides  upon  the  tables. 
The  upper  surface  of  them  seemed  to  be  very  level  and  ilat,  and 
were  of  about  the  roughness  of  sand-paper.  Before  each  stone  sat 
a  female  operative  rubbing  types.  The  object  of  this  rubbing  was 
to  smooth  the  sides  of  the  type,  and  to  remove  a  Httle  thin  pro- 
jection of  metal  which  is  apt  to  be  left,  after  the  casting,  at  the 
edges.  This  projection  is  caused  by  the  protnision  of  the  metal 
a  little  way  into  the  joints  of  the  mould ;  for  the  mould,  you  will 
recollect,  is  made  of  several  distinct  parts,  which  open  after,  the 
casting,  to  allow  the  type  to  drop  out,  and  then  shut  together  again. 
Now  it  is  not  possible  to  make  these  joints  perfectly  tight,  1  sup- 
pose. Indeed,  it  is  necessary  to  allow  suHicient  opening  to  permit 
the  escape  of  the  air,  for  the  metal  can  not  enter  the  mould  any 
faster  than  the  air  which  was  previously  in  it  can  go  out.  Now 
JO  F 


82  TYPE-FOUNI>ING. 


Account  of  the  process  of  rubbing.  Setting.  Types  placed  in  rows. 

the  metal  itself,  at  the  moment  of  casting,  will  protrude  a  little  way 
into  these  interstices,  and  to  remove  the  protrusions  thus  formed 
is  one  object  of  the  rubbing. 

The  girl  takes  up  a  handful  of  types,  and  lays  them  down,  side 
by  side,  on  the  stone.  She  takes  ten  or  twenty  at  a  time.  She 
then  lays  two  of  her  fingers  across  the  types,  and,  by  a  sweep  of 
her  arm  to  and  fro,  she  rubs  them  back  and  forth  on  the  flat  sur- 
face of  the  stone.  This  smooths  and  evens  the  under  sides  of  the 
types.  Then  she  brings  the  types  to  the  edge  of  the  stone,  so  as 
to  allow  the  ends  of  the  whole  row  to  project  a  little,  and  by  a 
veiy  dexterous  movement — so  dexterous  and  quick,  indeed,  that 
you  will  have  to  look  very  closely  to  follow  it — she  turns  them  all 
over  together,  and  then  proceeds  to  nib  the  other  side,  and  finally 
pushes  them  into  a  box  ready  near  tlie  stone  to  receive  them. 

After  a  time,  the  stones,  I  was  told,  become  glazed  over,  as  it 
were,  by  the  rubbing  of  the  types  upon  them,  and  then  it  becomes 
necessary  to  restore  the  roughness  of  the  surface  before  they  can 
be  used  any  more.     This  is  done  by  grinding  them  with  sand. 

The  next  process  is  setting.  This  consists  of  the  work  of  ar- 
ranging the  types  in  rows  for  inspection  and  for  the  final  finishing. 
The  setters  are  usually  small  gMs.  The  types  are  taken  up  by 
thenj  from  a  box,  where  they  lie  in  bulk,  and  are  placed  in  a  row 
upon  a  long  stick,  like  a  yard-stick.  It  is  astonishing  to  witness 
the  rapidity  of  motion  and  the  accuracy  which  these  girls  display 
in  taking  up  and  placing  the  types,  arranging  them  all  the  same 
way,  that  is,  with  the  same  side  toward  them,  and  the  letter  faces 
all  turned  downward.     In  the  first  instance,  the  girls  set  the  types 


TYPE-POUNDING. 


83 


Picture  of  the  dresser  examining  the  types  with  a  niagnifying-glaaa. 

in  a  shorter  stick,  much  like  a  composing-stick  in  respect  to  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  used,  only  it  is  eight  or  ten  inches  long,  and 
just  wide  enough  for  one  row  of  types.  As  fast  as  this  stick  be- 
comes full,  the  girls  transfer  the  row  of  types  to  the  long  stick, 
which  lies  on  a  little  shelf  Lefore  them,  and  when  this  is  full  the 
whole  Kne  is  made  ready  to  he  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  dresser. 

This  brings  us  to  the 
next  operation,  which  is 
that  oid/'csniny  the  type. 
The  dresser  caretiilly  ex- 
amines them,  and  rejects 
those  that  are  impertect 
and  bad,  and  then  trims 
those  that  are  perfect  to 
an  exact  and  a  unifonn 
standard.  The  casting, 
to  be  sure,  leaves  them 
nearly  uniform,  but  not 
quite.  It  is  the  last  fin- 
ishing touch  to  form  the 
types  which  the  dresser 
gives  to  them.  For  this 
object,  he  arranges  them 
on  an  instnunent  which 
has  the  appearance  of  a 
THE  DHEssER.  vcry  loni;  ruk'.      There 

is  a  ledge  below  for  the  foot  of  the  types  to  stand  upon,  and  a  sort 


84  TVl'E-FOUNDING. 


Very  dosu  exuiniiiation  required.  Rapid  manipulations. 

of  chock  at  each  end,  one  of  which  is  movable,  and  works  by  a 
screw.  By  means  of  these,  the  types,  when  necessary,  may  be  all 
clamped  together.  The  dresser  arranges  his  types  in  a  line  on 
this  rule,  and  places  them  in  a  strong  light  at  a  table  opposite 
the  window.  They  stand  there  before  him  in  a  strong  and  glitter- 
ing row,  like  a  long  line  of  soldiers  waiting  for  inspection.  Hold- 
ing a  little  awl  or  bodkin  in  his  right  hand,  and  in  his  left,  close  to 
his  eye,  a  small  magnifying-glass,  he  passes  his  glass  along  the 
line,  looking  closely  at  the  face  of  every  type.  All  that  are  per- 
fect he  passes ;  but,  whenever  he  sees  any  little  blemish  or  imper- 
fection on  the  surface  of  the  metal  which  forms  the  face  of  the  let- 
ter, he  instantly  pulls  the  type  forward  out  from  among  its  fellows 
with  his  bodkin,  and  it  drops,  condemned  and  disgraced,  into  an 
apron  placed  below  to  receive  it,  whence  it  is  sent  back  in  due 
time  to  the  melting-pot,  to  try  its  chance  again.  As  near  as  I 
could  judge,  something  like  one  tenth  of  the  types  were  thus  con- 
demned. 

The  types  that  pass  inspection  are  then  screwed  up  together  to 
receive  their  linal  trimming,  the  dresser  maneuvering  and  manip- 
ulating them  for  this  purpose  with  surprising  dexterity,  causing 
them  to  change  front,  face  about,  and  turn,, now  this  side  toward 
him  and  now  that,  all  together,  with  an  adroitness  that  would  as- 
tonish the  most  skillful  general  that  ever  maneuvered  soldiers  on 


It  is  in  the  course  of  this  process  of  dressing  that  the  workman 
planes  out  the  mark  of  the  fracture  left  at  the  foot  of  the  type  by 
breaking  off  the  jet,  as  has  before  been  explained. 


MOULDS    IY)Ii    TYI'i:-F(irNI»I.\(i.  85 

Types  packed  Tor  sale.  Modern  improvements  in  the  art  or  printing.  Moulds. 

When  the  dressing  process  has  been  completed,  the  types  are 
finished.  They  are  then  set  up  together  sohd,  in  square  blocks  of 
about  tlie  size  of  one  of  these  pages,  those  of  tiie  same  letter  or 
character  together.  These  blocks  are  then  caretiilly  enveloped  and 
packed,  and  are  ready  for  sale. 

The  quantity  of  metal  thus  cast  hito  types  at  the  establishment 
that  I  visited  amounts  to  not  less  than  500,000  pounds  every 
year,  and  nearly  two  hundred  liands  are  constantly  employed  in 
the  various  processes.  This  fact  alone  shows  on  how  magnificent 
a  scale  the  printing  operations  of  the  present  day  are  conducted. 
One  of  the  results  of  the  progress  which  the  printing  art  has  thus 
made  is,  that  more  copies  of  the  Bible  are  now  printed  in  two 
years  than  the  whole  number  that  had  ever  been  printed  before 
the  commencement  of  the  present  century  since  the  art  of  printing 
was  discovered. 

It  is  very  probable  that  in  respect  to  the  printing  of  book.s  and 
newspapers  the  advance  has  been  greater  still. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

MOULDS    FOR   TYrE-FOUNDING. 

The  process  of  forming  the  types  themselves  from  the  melted 
metal,  nice  and  curious  as  it  is,  is  by  no  means  the  most  delicate 
and  difficult  part  of  the  type-founder's  work.  Tlic  great  thing  is 
the  making  of  the  mould,  or,  rather,  of  that  part  of  the  monld  by 
which  the  face  of  the  letter  is  formed.  Tlie  part  in  (luesfion  i.s 
called  the  ?;ia^Wfc,  because  it  i.s  tlie  mother,  as  it  were,  of  all  tlio 


86  MOULDS   FOR  TYPE-FOUNDING. 

Picture  of  a  matrice.  Description  of  it.  The  punches. 

types  that  are   cast  in  it.      The 
matrice  is  a  short  and  thick  bar 
or  block  of  copper,  with  the  form 
THE  MATRICE.  pf  thc  Icttcr  wMch  it  is  intended 

to  produce  from  it  stamped  in  one  of  the  four  sides  of  it,  near  the 
end.  It  is  about  as  long  as  a  type,  but  a  great  deal  broader  and 
thicker.  Of  course,  there  must  be  a  separate  matrice  for  every 
separate  letter  or  character.  The  matrices  are  all  of  the  same 
length,  and  are  so  made  that  any  of  them  that  belong  to  the  same 
set  can  be  inserted  into  any  mould,  though  the  letters  and  charac- 
ters which  are  stamped  upon  them  are  of  course  different  in  each 
different  matrice. 

In  every  machine  or  mould  for  casting  type  there  is  a  place  for 
inserting  the  matrice,  and  the  founder  can  put  in  any  one  he 
pleases,  according  to  the  type  or  character  which  he  wishes  to  cast. 
The  matrice  is  so  placed  in  the  mould  that  the  part  on  which  the 
letter  is  stamped  comes  exactly  opposite  the  head  of  the  t}^e,  and 
thus  the  metal,  at  the  moment  of  casting,  flows  into  the  stamped 
depression,  and  forms  the  letter  that  is  stamped  upon  the  matrice, 
whatever  it  may  be. 

Thus  we  see  very  easily  how  the  letters  are  formed  on  the  types 
by  means  of  the  impression  in  the  matrice,  but  now  the  question 
arises  how  the  impressions  in  the  matrices  are  made.  The  an- 
swer is,  that  they  are  stamped  in  the  copper  by  means  of  what  are 
called  j)zi)ic/ies.  By  examining  the  engraving  on  the  following 
page,  the  reader  will  be  able  to  form  a  pretty  con-ect  opinion  of 
how  punches  are  made. 


MOULDS   FOR  TYPE-FOUNDING.  87 

Mode  of  making  the  punches.  Drives.  Complicated  process. 

The  punch  consists  of  a  small  steel 
rod,  with  a  letter  cut  upon  one  end, 
and  a  flat  head,  to  receive  the  blow  of 
a  hammer,  at  the  other.  The  punch- 
es are  about  two  or  three  inches  long, 
'"^  "^•^^"'^«-  and  are  made  of  the  best  and  hardest 

steel.  The  letter  is  cut  upon  them  by  hand,  in  the  use  of  chisels, 
files,  and  other  such  instnimcnts ;  and  as  the  form  and  fashion  of 
all  the  impressions  in  the  matrices,  and  of  all  tiie  ca.slings  on  the 
types,  and  of  all  the  letters  in  the  printed  books  whicii  may  come 
from  them,  depend  upon  their  shape  and  finish,  the  utmost  possi- 
ble pains  is  taken  in  perfecting  them. 

The  letters  are  formed  in  the  matrice  by  means  of  the  punch, 
the  letter  end  of  it  being  driven  into  the  copper  by  the  blow  of 
a  hammer.  A  man  who  owns  a  set  of  punches  often  sells  a  set 
of  impressions  from  them  to  a  type-founder,  to  save  the  founder 
the  expense  of  making  the  punches  himself.  lie  calls  it  selling 
drives. 

Thus,  in  coming  to  the  punches,  we  come  at  last  to  the  point 
where  the  form  of  the  letter  has  its  actual  origin.  It  begins  with 
tlic  punch,  the  punch  makes  the  matrice,  the  matrice  makes  tiic 
type,  and  the  type  makes  the  electrotype,  and  tiic  electrotype 
makes  the  letter  on  the  printed  page.  Thus  every  letter  which 
you  see  in  this  book  has  come  to  you  tlirougli  all  tiic^e  Jive  differ- 
cnt  forms. 

This  seems,  at  first  view,  to  be  taking  a  great  dciil  of  trouble ; 
but,  on  reflection,  we  shall  sec  that  the  proc^css  is  adniinibly  calcu- 


88  MOULDS   FOR   TYPE-FOTINDING. 

Advantages  of  the  eystem.  Immense  maltiplication  ofresulte. 

lated  to  save  labor  and  trouble.  If,  for  example,  every  type  Avere 
formed  by  itself,  by  cutting  out  the  letter  upon  the  end  of  it  with 
chisels  and  files,  instead  of  casting  it  in  a  matrice,  the  work  of 
forming  them  would  be  pretty  much  the  same  as  that  of  making 
the  punches — a  day's  labor  nearly  to  each  one ;  whereas  now  they 
are  cast,  as  we  have  seen,  at  the  rate  of  from  two  thousand  to  eight 
thousand  in  an  hour.  So  in  respect  to  the  matrices.  To  form  a 
matrice  by  means  of  cutting-tools  would  be'  even  more  laborious 
and  troublesome  than  the  making  of  a  punch,  and  there  would  be 
only  one  matrice  when  it  was  done.  But  the  punch,  once  finished, 
is  the  means  of  making  hundreds  of  matrices,  each  being  formed 
at  a  blow. 

The  effect  of  the  whole  system  in  respect  to  the  multiplication 
of  results  is  amazing,  as  will  be  readily  seen  by  the  following  cal- 
culation: One  punch  will  make  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  mat- 
rices. These  matrices,  distributed  in  the  various  machines  of  many 
different  founders,  will  cast  each  many  millions  of  types,  making 
many  hundreds  of  millions  of  types  from  one  punch.  Each  of 
these  types  used  in  electrotyping  will  give  from  five  hundred  to 
one  thousand  electrotype  copies,  and  every  electrotype  used  in 
printing  will  give  a  million  of  impressions  on  a  printed  page.  This 
makes  an  aggregate  of  many  thouscmds  of  omUions  of  millions  of 
printed  letters  from  one  single  father  punch,  the  common  progen- 
itor of  all.  This  is  no  imaginary  or  fanciful  calculation.  It  is  a 
fair  and  honest  statement  of  the  actual  powers  of  the  system  as 
now  in  constant  operation,  and  it  is  in  consequence  of  this  enor- 
mous multiplication  of  results  that  the  art  of  printing  is  enabled 


MOULDS    FOR   TYPE-FOUNDING.  89 

Care  in  making  the  punches.  Great  number  and  variety  required 

to  perform  such  wonders,  and  to  exert  such  an  influence  as  it  does 
on  the  destinies  of  man. 

Of  course,  a  punch  that  is  to  exert  so  wide-spread  an  influence 
in  the  world  well  deserves  that  no  pains  or  expense  should  be 
spared  in  giving  it,  at  the  outset,  the  most  perfect  jiossible  form. 
Consequently,  the  cutting  and  the  polishing  of  the  punches  is  one 
of  the  most  delicate  and  important  of  all  the  processes  connected 
with  the  typographical  art.  Tlie  punches  are,  consequently,  very 
costly,  and  a  good  set  of  them  is  highly  prized.  A  very  large 
number,  too,  are  required  in  every  extensive  foundry.  One  might 
at  first  suppose  that  a  few  hundred  would  be  enough,  as  there  are 
only  twenty-four  letters  in  the  alphabet,  and  a  comparatively  small 
number  of  stopb  and  marks  besides.  But,  instead  of  a  few  hund- 
reds, many  thousands  are  required.  In  the  first  place,  there  must 
be  two  sets  of  capitals,  and  one  set  each  for  Roman  and  Italic  let- 
ters, and  one  set  for  figures,  for  every  size  of  type.  These,  witii 
the  necessary  stops  and  other  characters,  make  at  least  three 
luindred  punches  for  every  size.  Then  the  number  of  sizes  and 
styles  of  letters  in  ordinary  use  is  very  large,  so  that  there  is 
scarcely  any  limit  to  the  number  and  variety  of  punches  that  are 
required.  They  amoimted,  in  the  establishment  that  I  was  vis- 
iting, to  many  thousands,  and  the  value  of  them  was  from  tliirty 
to  forty  thousand  dollars.  'J'hc  value  of  the  matrices,  too,  was 
about  the  same. 

I  went  to  see  the  iron  safes  where  this  valuable  prop«M-ty  was 
deposited.  These  safes — which  arc  the  same  with  those  custom- 
arilv  used  bv  the  New  York  merchants  for  keeping  their  account- 


90  MOULDS   FOR   TYPE-FOUNDING. 

The  safes  where  the  punches  and  matrices  are  kept. 

books  and  other  valuables  from  thieves  and  fire — are  great  iron 
chests,  made  movable  on  monstrous  castors,  with  walls  eight  or 
ten  inches  thick  all  around.  These  walls  are  formed  inside  and 
out  of  thick  plates  of  iron,  bolted  together  in  the  most  substantial 
manner,  and  fiUed  in  with  a  mineral  composition  peculiarly  adapt- 
ed to  resist  the  action  of  fire.  The  doors  are  of  the  same  con- 
struction as  the  walls,  and  they  move,  of  course,  very  slowly  and 
heavily  on  their  massive  hinges. 

The  first  safe  that  I  visited  contained  punches,  and  the  whole 
interior  of  it  was  filled  with  a  system  of  small  shallow  drawers, 
each  of  which  contained  a  number  of  round  tin  boxes,  in  which 
the  punches  were  packed,  those  of  the  same  size  in  the  same  box. 
They  were  packed  in  an  upright  position,  with  the  letters  on  the 
upper  end  of  them. 

I  afterward  went  to  see  the  safes  that  contained  the  matrices. 
There  were  two  of  these  safes,  and  they  were  much  larger  than  the 
one  which  I  had  first  visited,  for  the  matrices  are  far  more  nu- 
merous than  the  punches.  These  safes,  too,  were  filled  with  little 
drawers,  all  of  which  were  appropriately  numbered  and  labeled  ac- 
cording to  the  denomination,  style,  and  character  of  the  letters 
which  the  matrices  that  they  contained  were  intended  to  make. 
The  contents  of  these  safes  were  of  very  great  value.  In  addition 
to  the  usual  securities  for  the  protection  of  them  in  case  of  fire, 
they  were  banded  very  strongly  with  thick  bars  of  iron,  made  to 
close  over  the  doors  after  they  were  shut,  and  to  lock  independ- 
ently of  them.  The  object  of  these  bands  was  to  assist  in  pre- 
venting the  safe  from  bursting  open  when  falling  through  the  floors 


MOULDS   FOR   TTPE-FOUNDING.  91 

Fall  of  heavy  safes  in  case  of  fire.  Great  strenglb  required. 

of  the  building  into  the  cellar  in  case  of  a  fire ;  for  always,  when 
a  building  is  burned  that  contains  safes  of  this  character  in  the 
upper  stories,  the  safes,  as  soon  as  the  timbers  of  the  floor  on 
which  they  stand  are  weakened  by  the  fire,  break  through,  and  fall 
with  a  dreadful  crash  down  through  all  the  other  floors  into  the 
cellar.  Indeed,  so  great  is  the  force  of  the  fall  of  these  safes  some- 
times, that  they  bring  down  the  walls  of  the  building  with  them, 
the  ends  of  the  floor-timbers  being  built  into  the  walls  in  such 
a  manner  that  when  the  timbers  are  broken  off"  and  borne  down  in 
the  inside,  the  walls  are  pried  over  as  by  a  lever,  and  come  down 
Avith  a  dreadful  crash  and  confusion  into  the  street,  overwhehning 
and  burying  the  firemen,  perhaps,  in  the  ruin. 

The  safes  of  a  type-foundry  are  pecuharly  heavy,  being  filled, 
not  with  books  and  accounts,  or  otlier  comparatively  light  articles, 
but  with  pieces  of  metal,  which,  though  individually  small,  are  so 
numerous,  and  so  closely  packed,  that  the  whole  safe,  in  respect  to 
its  heaviness,  is  very  much  as  if  it  were  one  soUd  mass  of  iron  six 
feet  square  and  three  feet  deep.  Of  course,  so  ])onderous  a  body 
as  this,  in  falling  fifty  or  sixty  feet  through  the  floors  of  a  burning 
building,  must  come  down  to  the  cellar  floor  with  a  tremendous 
concussion,  and  there  would  be  most  imminent  danger  that  it  would 
burst  itself  open,  unless  its  fastenings  were  secured  in  the  strong- 
est possible  manner. 

Indeed,  the  whole  building  used  for  tlie  pur|-)Oses  of  a  tyi)e-foun- 
dry  must  be  made  extremely  strong,  on  account  of  the  great  weight 
which  almost  every  part  of  it  has  to  carry.  The  packages  of  tyjx;s, 
of  course,  as  aiTanged  on  the  shelves  of  tlic  store-rodin,  ready  to  he 


92  MOULDS   FOR   TYPE-FOUNDING. 

Comparative  quantities  required  of  different  letters. 

boxed  for  their  various  destinations,  are  as  heavy  almost  as  so 
many  blocks  of  solid  metal.  I  saw  one  set  of  very  strong  and 
massive  shelves,  perhaps  ten  feet  Avide,  and  ten  feet  high  in  all, 
which  contained  packages  of  type  that  weighed,  in  all,  I  Avas  in- 
formed, not  less  than  ten  tons.  The  whole  solid  stock  of  tj^Dc  on 
hand  in  the  establishment  weighed  usually  not  less  than  forty  or 
fifty  tons. 

In  fitting  up  the  types  for  use,  those  of  each  letter  are  put  to- 
gether in  a  package  by  itself,  so  that  one  package,  when  opened,  is 
found  to  be  all  «'s,  another  all  ^'s,  and  so  on.  The  reader  might 
perhaps  suppose,  at  first  thought,  that  the  number  of  types  for  each 
letter  of  the  alphabet  would  be  equal.  But  this  is  by  no  means 
the  case,  for  some  letters  occur  much  more  frequently  than  others, 
and,  of  course,  more  types  of  them  are  required  in  proportion  than 
of  the  others. 

For  example,  almost  twice  as  many  are  required  of  the  letter  e 
as  of  any  other  letter,  for  the  e  occurs  twice  as  frequently  as  any 
other  letter  of  the  alphabet  in  the  English  language.  This  sub- 
ject has  already  been  referred  to  in  describing  the  setting  of  type. 
Next  to  the  letter  e,  the  letters  (2,  w,  and  o  are  most  common.  For 
every  seven  pounds  of  d's  they  usually  put  about  four  pounds  of 
«'s,  ?i's,  and  c's  ;  that  is,  a  little  more  than  one  half  as  many.  The 
most  unfi:equent  letters  are  q,  x,  and  z.  Of  each  of  these  only  one 
quarter  of  a  pound  are  required  for  every  seven  pounds  of  <?'s, 
which  is  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  twenty-eight. 

It  is  surprising  Avhat  a  variety  of  efiects  can  be  produced  by 
t}-pe  made  in  this  way,  from  matrices  formed  by  punclies  of  steel. 


MOULDS   FOK  TYPE-FOUNDING.  93 


Specimen  of  script  type  Great  variety  of  punches  made. 

There  is  a  style  of  type  in  wliicli  the  letters  seem  to  touch  eacli 
other  on  the  printed  page,  and  form  what  a{)j)ears  to  be  a  contin- 


This  is  called  script  type.  Tt  looks  quite  continuous,  like  real 
writing ;  but  if  you  examine  it  very  closely,  es})ecialiy  witii  a  mi- 
croscope, you  will  see  a  slight  division  in  the  hair-line  which  unites 
each  letter  with  the  one  that  precedes  and  follows  it.  These  di- 
visions denote  the  points  of  junction  between  the  several  types  as 
they  stand  in  the  line. 

A  great  many  difterent  styles  of  ornamental  borders  are  made 
in  the  same  way,  that  is,  by  means  of  separate  types,  the  figure  on 
each  of  which  is  carried  out  so  close  to  the  edge  of  it  as  to  come 
almost  into  absolute  contact  Avith  the  corresponding  parts  of  the 
figure  on  the  next  type.  Thus,  in  tlie  printing,  the  elicct  of  a  con- 
thuious  border  is  produced.  Type-founders  invent  an  infinite  va- 
riety of  these  borders,  each  differing  from  the  rest  in  style  and  de- 
sign.     On  the  next  page  is  a  small  specimen  of  one  of  them. 

These  borders  are  used  to  form  ornamental  margins  for  cards, 
certificates,  catalogues,  and  other  similar  publications,  and  some- 
times, too,  for  the  pages  of  jtrinted  books.      I  insert  a  specimen 


94 


MOULDS   FOR  TYPE-FOUNDING. 


Farther  specimens  of  what  can  be  done  by  means  of  punches. 


mvjm>^  ®f  iffl^iE3ir< 


^^lrl(  6t|ebeHl. 


here   to    show    how 

great  is  the  variety 

of  work  accompUsh- 

ed  by  the  punch,  and 

how  nice  must  he  the 

skill  of  the  cutter  to 

work  such  fine  and 

G^S'  complicated  designs 

in  the    sohd  metal. 

-4-^:g^-^JK4ga-E^-^-:^-a-E»>gwa^g-s^  ^lany  of  these  bor- 

^       ^^^       ->*.  o^  ^^j.g   ^j.g  ^g^  large 

and  exceedingly  elaborate.  Others  are  small  and  very  delicate 
in  style  of  execution,  and  by  varying  the  combinations  of  them  a 
great  variety  of  effects  may  be  produced.  In 
the  margin  is  a  small  cu'cle  formed  by  ar- 
ranging together  the  four  corner  types  of  a 
particular  border,  with  a  specimen  of  fine  print- 
ing within  it,  which  shows  to  how  great  a  de- 
gree of  minuteness  the  work  of  cutting  the 
punches  is  sometimes  carried. 
And  here  I  will  close  the  account  of  tliis  cmious  manufacture, 
only  adding  that  the  types  made  where  the  English  language  is 
spoken  are  by  no  means  restricted  to  the  English  language  in 
speaking  themselves.  They  can  talk  in  any  language  in  which 
the  alphabetic  characters  are  the  same  as  in  our  own.  Thus  the 
progeny  of  the  same  punch,  formed  by  an  American  workman  in 
New  York,  are  scattered  in  innumerable  thousands  over  the  world. 


MOULDS  FOR    TYPK-FOUNDING.  95 

Types  can  speak  in  many  different  languages. 

They  talk  Spanish  in  Mexico,  Portuguese  in  Brazil,  and  French 
in  New  Orleans  or  INIontreal.  They  are  employed,  too,  in  every 
variety  of  duty.  Some,  in  spelling-books  or  primers,  are  set  to  the 
Avork  of  teaching  millions  of  little  children  in  schools  to  read  ami 
spell.  Others,  that  came  out,  perhaps,  originally  side  Ly  side  with 
the  former  from  the  same  matrice,  are  employed  in  Latin  diction- 
aries, or  in  new  and  beautiful  editions  of  the  ancient  classics,  to 
aid  the  learned  researches  of  scholars  in  colleges  and  universities. 
Some  amuse  in  books  of  romance.  Others,  the  brothers  and  sis- 
ters of  the  former,  puzzle  and  perplex  in  books  of  mathematics. 
Some  go  to  Washington,  and  make  fierce  political  speeches,  now 
in  favor  of  one  party,  and  now  in  ftivor  of  the  other,  equally  in- 
different to  both ;  others  to  a  Bible  House  or  a  Tract  House,  and 
earnestly  plead  the  cause  of  human  salvation ;  while  others  still 
devote  their  lives  to  the  fireside  entertainment  and  instruction  of 
thousands  of  families  through  the  pages  of  story-books  or  maga- 
zines. All  this  time  the  parent  punch  from  whom  they  all  sprung 
remains  wholly  unconscious  of  the  immense  diffusion  of  his  off- 
spring, and  of  the  vastly  varied  character  of  the  duties  which  they 
are  severally  called  upon  to  fulfill.  He  pays  no  heed  to  these  in- 
calculable results  of  what  he  has  already  done,  and  least  of  all  does 
he  show  any  disposition  to  be  satisfied  with  them.  Ills  duty  is 
to  go  on  producing;  so  he  holds  well  to  his  temper  and  to  his  edge, 
and  keeps  steadily  on,  adding  continually,  tlu-ough  the  new  mat- 
rices tliat  he  produces,  millions  and  millions  more  to  his  already 
innumerable  progeny. 


1)6  ELECTROTYPING. 


Advantages  of  the  electrotypirig  process.  The  plate. 


CHAPTER  X. 

ELECTROTYPING. 

The  electrotyping  process  is  one  which  has  been  discovered 
within  a  very  few  years,  and  it  very  greatly  facilitates  all  printing 
operations  which  are  carried  on  upon  an  extensive  scale.  It  con- 
sists in  producing  from  the  solid  page  of  t}^es,  or  of  types  and  en- 
graved blocks  together — which,  of  course,  is  very  heavy  and  un- 
wieldy— a  plate  of  copper,  with  all  the  faces  of  the  letters  and  the 
lines  of  the  engravings  precisely  repeated  on  the  side  of  it,  just  as 
they  appear  in  the  solid  page  which  the  compositor  had  set  up. 
The  original  page  of  the  types  can  then  be  sent  back  to  the  com- 
posing-room and  distributed,  and  the  new  and  comparatively  light, 
thin  copper  plate  can  be  used  to  print  from  in  its  stead. 

Tiie  electrotype  plate  is  about  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch  in 
thickness.  In  length  and  breadth,  of  course,  it  corresponds  with 
the  size  of  the  page  that  it  was  made  from.  The  face  of  it  is  of 
copper ;  the  back  of  it,  including  the  principal  portion  of  its  thick- 
ness, is  of  type-metal. 

When  it  is  to  be  used  in  printing,  it  is  placed  upon  a  block  of 
wood  of  such  a  thickness  that  the  block  and  the  plate  together 
shall  equal  the  thickness  of  the  original  page  of  type.  The  block 
is  provided  with  a  pair  of  clamps  to  secure  the  plate  in  its  place. 
The  upper  ends  of  these  clamps  are  seen  in  the  engra"\ang,  on  the 
edge  of  the  block  that  is  towai'd  us,  projecting  over  the  edge  of  the 


ELECTROTVFIN<;. 


97 


Blocking  electrotype  plates. 


The  clamps. 


Engraving  of  a  block. 


plate,  which  is  beveled  to  receive  them,  "i'lic  Lack  edge  of  tin; 
plate  is  also  beveled,  and  ])asses  under  two  fixtures  projecting  on 
that  side,  which  are  attached  iirmly  to  tlic  block.  The  clamps  on 
the  hither  side  are  movable,  being  made  so  that  they  can  be  drawn 
back  or  driven  forward  by  means  of  the  toothed  wheels,  which  are 
seen  near  the  back  edge  of  the  block.      These  \\  liccls  are  each  con- 


'mm^smrn'm 


BLOCKINO   THE   PLATE. 


stnicted  with  a  brass  rod,  which  seiwes  as  an  axle,  and  coinniuni- 
cates  with  the  clamps  on  the  front  side  of  the  plate.  The  rods  arc 
connected  with  these  clamps  by  a  screw,  so  that,  by  (iiniing  the 
toothed  wheels,  the  clamps  may  be  drawn  in  over  the  edge  of  the 
]t]ate,  and  thus  made  to  hold  it  down  securely  on  the  face  of  tlu^ 
block.  Tlie  otiicr  side  of  the  jilatc  is  hehl  down,  of  course,  by  ihe 
10  'J 


yb  ELECTROTYPING. 


How  the  thin  copper  plate  is  strengthened. 


beveled  edge  being  brought  close  under  the  fixed  clamps  on  that 
side. 

The  instrument  with  which  the  toothed  wheels  are  worked,  both 
in  fastening  in  the  plate  and  loosening  it  again  when  required,  is 
seen  above,  as  held  when  in  use  by  the  workman. 

The  plate,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  engraving,  is  quite  thin.  It 
shows  on  the  upper  surface  a  map,  occupying  the  centre  of  the 
page,  with  a  few  lines  of  letter-press  above  and  below.  Of  course, 
in  forming  this  page,  the  wooden  block  on  which  the  map  was  en- 
graved was  placed  in  the  centre,  and  the  lines  of  type,  after  being  set 
up  in  the  composing-stick,  were  placed  at  each  end.  The  whole 
page  was  then  wedged  up  in  a  chase,  and  sent  to  the  electrot^^jer. 

The  upper  surface  of  the  electrotype  only — that  is,  the  one  which 
contains  tlie  forms  of  the  letters  and  the  lines  of  the  engraving,  is 
of  copper.  The  remainder  of  the  thickness  of  it,  as  has  already 
been  said,  is  of  type-metal,  which  is  cast  upon  the  back  of  the 
thin  copper  plate,  to  stiffen  and  support  it.  The  chief  interest  in 
respect  to  the  electrotyping  process  is  the  manner  in  which  this 
thin  copper  plate  is  made. 

A  visitor  going  into  a  room  where  the  electrotyping  process  is 
going  on,  sees  little  else  but  a  large  number  of  square  boxes  or 
tanks,  filled  with  some  chemical-looking  liquor,  and  connected  to- 
gether by  means  of  a  great  number  of  bent  and  crooked  wires, 
which  run  in  irregular  curves  from  one  tank  to  another.  These 
wires  are  for  the  purpose  of  canying  an  electric  current  to  the  liq- 
uor in  the  tanks.  Tlie  current  is  supplied  from  what  is  called  a 
galvanic  battery,  which  also  stands  in  the  room. 


ELECTKOTYPING.  99 


Galvanic  battery.  Singular  eflects  oftlio  current  of  cicctriciiy. 

To  describe  the  construction  and  uses  of  a  galvanic  Lattcrv 
Avould  lead  me  too  far  away  from  the  subject  of  printing.  It  will 
be  sufficient  for  my  present  purpose  to  say,  that  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity from  such  a  battery,  directed  upon  the  liquor  in  the  tank, 
is  essential  to  the  success  of  the  clectrotyping  process,  and,  ac- 
cordingly, the  battery  and  Avircs  arc  an-anged  for  tlie  purpose  of 
supplying  such  a  current.  The  general  principle  on  wIulIi  the 
process  is  conducted  is  this. 

It  has  been  discovered  Avithin  a  few  years  that  if  a  lifpiid  con- 
tains any  metal  in  solution,  an  arrangement  may  be  made  of  elec- 
tric wires,  so  that,  under  the  influence  of  the  electric  current 
brought  by  the  wires,  tlic  particles  of  the  metal  in  the  solution  will 
be  slowly  deposited  upon  any  metallic  plate  which  may  be  im- 
mersed in  the  liquid,  although  no  such  effect  would  be  j)roduccd 
witliout  the  electric  current.  For  example,  if  a  liquid  containing 
copper  in  solution  were  to  be  placed  in  a  tank,  and  a  silver  dollar 
were  to  be  immersed  in  it,  no  effect  would  be  produced.*  If,  now, 
a  galvanic  battery  be  established  near  the  place,  to  supply  a  cur- 
rent of  electricity,  and  wires  are  placed  in  a  peculiar  way,  connect- 
ing the  battery  with  the  li({uor  in  the  tank,  and  also  with  the  sil- 
ver dollar,  the  copper  will  begin  immediately  to  leave  tlie  liquor, 
and  to  deposit  itself  In  a  thin  iilin  all  over  the  surface  of  the  silver, 
and  will  soon  encase  it  entirely.      This  process  will  go  on  as  long 

*  Copper  itself,  in  its  metallic  state,  can  not  be  dissolved  in  water ;  but  some  of  its 
compounds  with  other  substances  can  be.  For  example,  blue  rtlnol,  which  in  a  com- 
pound of  sulphuric  acid  and  copper,  is  easily  solul>lc.  (If  course,  in  a  solution  of 
/line  vitriol  in  water,  we  should  have  the  particles  of  copper  dillused  throU|,'hout  iho 
liipiid,  though  in  a  wholly  invisible  form. 


loo  ELECTJtOTYPlNG. 


Formation  of  the  mould.  Depositing  the  copper  upon  it. 

MS  the  current  of"  electricity  continues,  and  the  supply  of  copper  in 
the  solution  holds  out.  Thus  a  copper  covering  of  any  required 
thickness  may  be  applied  to  the  silver. 

The  process  of  electrotyping  is  conducted  on  this  principle.  A 
thin  film  of  copper  is  deposited  in  the  manner  above  described  upon 
a  mould  which  contains  a  perfect  impression  of  the  whole  page 
which  is  to  be  cast,  both  type-matter  and  engravings.  The  mould 
is  formed  from  the  page  as  it  is  set  up  in  the  composing-room  by 
pressing  the  face  of  it  into  a  certain  plastic  substance  prepared  for 
the  purpose.  When  the  mould  is  thus  formed,  and  the  surface  of 
it  is  prepared  properly  for  receiving  the  metallic  deposit,  it  is  placed 
in  one  of  the  tanks,  and  then  connected  with  the  battery  by  the 
wires.  The  deposition  of  the  copper  all  over  the  surface  of  the 
mould  immediately  commences.  The  particles  find  their  Avay  into 
all  the  interstices  of  the  type,  and  into  the  very  finest  lines  of  the 
engraving,  so  as  to  reproduce  exactly  every  touch  and  lineament, 
however  delicate  and  fine,  of  the  engraved  work. 

After  the  process  has  been  continued  several  lioui's,  until  the 
workman  considers  that  the  coating  of  copper  is  sufficiently  thick 
to  sustain  itself  under  the  subsequent  operations,  he  takes  the 
mould  out,  and  the  copper  coating  is  detached  from  it.  The  plate 
is  exceedingly  slender  and  thin  when  first  detached,  but  all  the  let- 
ters of  the  types,  and  all  the  lines,  and  even  the  very  finest  shades 
of  the  engraving,  are  represented  upon  it  with  beautiful  distinct- 
ness and  precision.  The  impression  is,  of  course,  in  relief  on  one 
side,  and  in  intaglio  on  the  other.  This  thin  plate  is  then  placed 
on  a  sort  of  frame,  with  supports  to  keep  it  extended  in  a  true  and 


ELECTROTYPING. 


inl 


l.S  I'KUIUH    UK     1  lit.    V/ 


102  ELECTROTYPING. 


Finishing  the  plates.  The  subterranean  vaults.  New  editions. 

even  position,  and  a  backing  of  type-metal  i,g  cast  upon  what  a 
lady  would  call  the  wrong  side  of  it,  and  thus  a  solid,  substantial 
plate  is  formed,  thick  and  firm  enough  to  be  used  safely  in  print- 
ing, and  yet  not  one  fifth  part  as  heavy  as  the  original  page  of 
type-matter  from  whicli  it  was  formed. 

The  plates  are  all  minutely  examined  when  they  are  cast,  and 
are  properly  trimmed  and  finished.  They  are  made  as  nearly  as 
possible  of  a  uniform  thickness.  Of  course,  there  must  be  one 
plate  for  every  page  of  the  book  to  be  printed. 

The  accumulation  of  electrotype  plates  in  a  large  establishment 
that  has  been  long  in  operation  is  very  great.  In  the  Harper  Es- 
tablishment, the  stores  now  on  hand  are  enormous.  Those  of  the 
Magazine  alone  are  rapidly  approaching  ten  thousand. 

The  plates  are  stored  in  subterranean  vaults  built  under  the 
streets  that  surround  the  building.  The  entrance  to  these  vaults 
has  already  been  shown  in  the  sectional  view  of  the  Cliff  Street 
building,  on  page  42.  A  more  enlarged  view  is  shown  on  the  pre- 
ceding page.  The  vaults  extend  under  ground  for  two  hundred 
feet  in  length,  and  in  dimensions  are  eight  feet  wide  by  eight  feet 
high.  They  are  shelved  on  both  sides,  and  the  shelves  are  load- 
ed Avitli  plates — stereotype  or  electrotype — representing  all  the 
works  published  in  the  estabUshment.  There  is  one  plate  for  ev- 
ery page  of  every  one  of  the  many  hundreds  of  volumes  Avhich 
the  house  publishes,  making  from  fifty  to  seventy  tons  in  all. 

When  a  new  edition  of  any  book  is  required,  the  plates  are 
brought  out  from  these  vaults  and  put  upon  the  presses.  When 
the  work  is  finished,  thev  are  taken  back  again  to  the  vaults. 


ENGRAVINGS.  103 


Two  distinct  kinds  or  engravings  in  common  ose. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

ENGRAVINGS. 

To  those  who  Iiavc  not  had  an  opportunity  to  know  much  about 
the  processes  of  printing,  there  is  quite  a  mystery  in  respect  to  the 
manner  in  which  the  ene:i'avino:s  are  made. 

There  are  two  entirely  distinct  modes  of  making  and  printing 
engravings  in  common  use.  These  two  modes  are  usually  distin- 
guished as  eojyj^er-j^late  or  steel  engravings,  and  icood  engravings.* 

The  former  kind — that  is,  the  copper-plate  engravings,  were 
made  by  cutting  the  lines  of  the  picture  in  the  surface  of  the 
copper-plate,  and  then  fdling  these  lines  with  ink,  and  afterward 
taking  up  the  ink  upon  the  sheet  of  paper  by  a  strong  pressure. 

The  second  kind — that  is,  the  wood  engi-avings,  were  made  by 
drawing  the  figure  on  the  end  of  a  block  of  very  hard  and  close- 
grained  Avood,  previously  made  smooth  for  the  puq^ose,  and  tiicn 
cutting  away  the  wood  from  between  the  lines  of  the  drawing,  so 
as  to  leave  the  lines  themselves  in  relief^  thus  exactly  reversing 
tlic  process  in  copper-plate  engraving,  in  which  the  lines  them- 
selves were  cut  away.  The  iigurc  was  then  transferred  to  the  pa- 
per by  inking  the  faces  of  the  lines,  and  printing  from  tlicm  in  u 
connnon  ])rinting-prcss,  precisely  as  from  types. 

*  Uesidcs  these,  there  is  a  third  class  of  illustrations  imicli  in  use,  ralleil  lilhogniphs. 
They  arc,  however,  not  properly  engravings,  lieinrr  printed  from  simple  drairtngs  made 
upon  stone,  and,  therefore,  they  arc  not  included  here. 


104  ENGKAVINGrS. 


Copper  and  steel  engravings.  Advantages  of  this  method. 

The  names  coppei--plate  engraving  and  wood  engi-aving  are, 
liowever,  no  longer  strictly  appropriate;  for,  instead  of  plates  of 
copper,  plates  of  steel  are  now  generally  used  for  the  former  mode. 
The  steel  is  softened  in  the  first  instance,  so  as  to  facilitate  the 
cutting  of  the  lines  upon  it,  and  then  is  afterward  hardened  again, 
so  as  to  make  it  more  endiuing  under  the  constant  rubbing  to 
which  it  is  subjected  in  the  process  of  printing.  It  is  wholly  on 
account  of  its  being  so  much  more  enduring  than  copper  that  steel 
is  now  more  generally  used  for  the  material  of  the  plate  on  which 
this  class  of  engravings  are  made. 

The  essential  distinction  between  the  two  modes  is  that,  by  the 
former,  the  lines  of  the  design  are  cut  in  intaglio^  as  it  is  called, 
wliile  by  the  latter  they  stand  in  relief. 

Copper  or  steel  engraving  has  this  advantage  over  wood,  name- 
ly, that  finer  work  may  be  executed  in  that  way.  This,  we  might 
easily  see,  must  necessarily  be  the  case,  since,  in  engraving  a  fine 
design,  it  must  be  much  more  easy  to  cut  the  lines  themselves  in 
the  material  of  the  surface  to  be  engraved,  than  to  cut  away  the 
material  on  each  side  of  the  line,  so  as  to  leave  the  line  itself  in  re- 
lief. It  is  subject  to  this  great  disadvantage,  however,  namely, 
that  it  requires  an  entirely  different  mode  of  printing  from  the  or- 
dinary letter-press  of  books — one,  moreover,  that  is  very  laborious 
and  slow ;  for,  in  the  first  place,  the  whole  sui'face  of  the  plate  is 
covered  with  ink  by  means  of  a  roller.  The  plate  is  then  care- 
fully wiped,  so  as  to  remove  all  the  ink  from  the  surface,  and  leave 
only  that  which  lies  in  the  lines  of  the  engraving.  The  ink,  lying 
as  it  does  beneatli  the  surface  of  the  ])late  in  the  engraved  lines. 


ENGRA\aNGS. 


105 


Mode  of  printing  Oom  copper  and  steel  engravings. 


must  be  hroxight  up,  as  it  Averc,  by  tlie  impression ;  and  this  re- 
quires a  very  great  foree.  This  force  is  applied  by  passing  tlic 
plate,  Avith  tlie  sheet  on  Avhich  tlie  impression  is  to  be  taken,  un- 
der a  roller.      By  this  means,  the  whole  force  of  the  pressure  is 

brought  upon  the  diftcrent 
portions  of  tlio  sheet  in  suc- 
cession, at  tlic  line  of  con- 
tact Avith  tlio  roller,  instead 
of  being  diffused  OA'cr  the 
whole  Surface,  and  thus,  in 
a  great  degree,  AA'eakened. 
The  adjoining  engraA'ing 
represents  the  general  form 
of  one  of  these  printing- 
presses  as  used  fifty  years 
ago.  Great  improA'ements 
haAC  been  made  in  the  construction  of  these  presses  since  those 
(lays,  Imt  the  ])rinciple  is  the  same  at  the  present  day. 

In  ])rinting  from  Avood  engravings,  on  the  other  hand,  or  from 
electro-plates,  Avhidi  are  fac  similes  of  thfin  in  copper,  the  lines 
of  the  design  are  in  relief,  precisely  like  the  faces  of  the  types ; 
and  the  ink  may  be  taken  off  from  them  by  the  same  general  press- 
ure, exerted  simultaneously  over  the  Avholo  surface  ol  the  plati-,  as 
lliat  Avhicli  takes  the  impression  from  the  tyi)cs.  'J'liis  species  ot 
engraving  can  consequently  be  Avorked  in  tlie  same  jiatre  with  let- 
ter-press, and  by  the  same  impression. 

Tliis  difference  is  of  immense  iiiiportiince  in  resjtect  t.^  the  prae- 


orl'ER-ri.ATK    I'KINTINC 


lOG  ENGRAVINGS. 


Slow  and  laborious  nature  orthe  process. 


tical  working  of  the  two  methods,  where  gi'eat  numbers  of  impres- 
sions arc  required.  The  engravings  for  Harper's  JMagazine,  for 
example,  by  being  cut  in  relief,  can  be  Avorked  in  the  power-press- 
es with  tlie  other  matter  of  the  number.  By  this  means,  they  can 
be  printed  with  gi-eat  rapidity,  although  still,  on  account  of  the 
A'ast  number  of  copies  that  are  required,  the  operation  occupies  a 
considerable  time.  If,  however,  the  engravings  were  all  in  one 
form,  the  whole  hundred  and  forty  thousand  copies  could  be  worked 
off  in  a  little  moi'C  than  a  month  from  one  press.* 

If,  now,  on  the  other  hand,  we  suppose  the  engravings  to  be  ex- 
ecuted in  steel  or  copper,  the  result  would  be  astonishingly  differ- 
ent. I  find,  by  an  examination  of  the  last  number  of  the  Maga- 
zine that  has  been  issued  at  the  present  time,  that  it  contains  not 
less  than  sixteen  solid  pages  of  engravings.  If  we  suppose  that 
two  of  these  pages  were  engraved  on  one  plate,  it  would  require, 
at  the  usual  rate  of  printing  by  this  method — say  two  hundred  and 
fifty  impressions  per  day- — not  much  less  than  tino  years  to  work 
off  the  necessary  number  of  copies  from  one  plate,  and  that  would 
be  only  two  pages  out  of  the  sixteen ;  so  that  it  would  take  ticelve 
or  fifteen  years,  with  one  copper-plate  press,  to  print  all  the  en- 
gravings required  for  one  number,  instead  of  a  month  or  therea- 
bout, as  by  the  present  method.     Of  course,  by  multiplying  the 

*  In  point  of  fact,  the  engravings  are  scattered  through  many  forms,  and  it  takes 
several  presses,  therefore,  to  print  the  engravings  of  one  number  within  the  month ; 
and  as  portions  of  several  numbers  are  being  printed  at  the  same  time,  there  is  an  av- 
erage of  ten  or  twelve  presses  constantly  employed  on  the  Magazine.  Sometimes 
twenty  are  at  work  upon  it  at  one  time. 


ENGRAVINGS.  107 


Wood  superior  in  certain  respects.  Kind  of  wood  uaed. 

presses  used,  the  work  would  be  hastened,  hut  it  would  require 
many  hundreds  of  presses  to  do  the  work  of  one  number  within 
the  month. 

Thus  we  see  that  steel  and  eopper-plate  engravings  can  only  be 
used  as  illustrations  of  literary  works  in  cases  whore  the  number 
of  copies  to  be  issued  is  comparatively  smalL  Then,  moreover, 
they  can  not  be  printed  on  the  same  page  with  the  descriptions  re- 
ferring to  them,  except  at  great  additional  expense,  but  must  be  on 
separate  leaves. 

In  some  respects,  moreover,  wood  engravings,  wlicn  executed  in 
tlie  highest  style  of  art,  arc  superior  to  tho.'^e  on  copper  or  steel. 
There  is  a  certain  indescribable  boldness  and  richness  of  cftect  that 
characterizes  this  mode  when  it  is  carried  to  perfection  which  can 
not  be  produced  on  copper  or  steel. 

In  making  a  wood  engraving,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  for 
the  artist  to  draw  the  design  on  the  block  of  wood  to  be  engraved. 
The  wood  used  must  be  of  a  very  fine  and  compact  grain.  Box- 
wood is  the  kind  generally  employed.  In  fact,  no  other  wood  has 
yet  been  discovered  with  a  grain  close  enough  to  serve  for  fine  en- 
gi'avings.  As  the  boxwood  is  a  small  tree,  blocks  of  sufficient  size 
for  large  engi'avings  can  be  procured  only  by  gluing  together  a  num- 
ber of  pieces.  It  is  prepared  by  being  sawed  off  in  bhicks  from  the 
end  of  the  log,  and  then  squared  and  smootlied  in  a  very  exact  man- 
ner. These  operations  are  performed  by  means  of  very  ingenious 
machinery,  at  large  establishments  devoted  expressly  to  the  busi- 
ness. The  thickness  of  the  blocks  is  uniform,  being  the  same  as 
tlie  length  of  the  types,  in  order  that  the  blocks,  when  engraved, 


108  ENGRAVINGS. 


The  designer.  Ilis  mode  of  proceeding  lJoi)ler. 

may  be  set  up  with  the  types  in  a  page  of  matter.  Tlie  size  of 
the  block,  of  course,  varies  with  the  size  of  the  design. 

In  making  the  design,  tlie  artist  sometimes  reads  the  work  of 
the  author,  and  selects  his  subject,  and  sometimes  the  author  him- 
self selects  the  subjects,  and  gives  the  designer  a  description  of 
them.  The  artist  then  makes  a  design  and  drawing  correspond- 
ing to  the  description.  To  illustrate  this  more  fully,  I  give  here 
an  actual  description  of  a  design,  selected  at  random  from  the  last 
set  which  I  sent  to  j\Ir.  Dopier,  the  artist  Avho  makes  many  of  the 
drawings  for  these  Story  Books,  and  insert  also  an  engraving  of 
the  design  which  he  made,  that  the  reader  may  compare  them. 
The  desig-n  belong-s  to  a  set  made  to  illustrate  a  future  number  of 
the  Story  Books  entitled  John  True.  Of  course  this  block  will 
be  used  twice.  It  is  employed  here  to  illustrate  the  nature  of  de- 
signing. In  the  story,  when  we  reach  it  in  the  series,  it  will  come 
in  again,  in  its  proper  place,  to  illustrate  the  narrative. 

The  following  is  the  description  sent : 

LUNCHEON. 
A  comer  in  a  handsome  breakfast-room  in  the  Fifth  Avenue. 
A  small  table  neatly  set  for  luncheon  near  a  large  bow  window. 
Rich  furniture  partly  or  wholly  shown.  Handsome  curtains  to 
the  window.  Two  pretty  children,  John  True,  and  his  sister,  five 
years  old,  are  at  the  table  eating  their  luncheon,  which  consists  of 
chicken-pie,  and  a  tumbler  of  milk  for  each.  Pitcher  on  the  table. 
The  children  are  dressed  very  plainly  and  simply. 

On  the  facing  page  vou  will  see  the  design  wliich  tlie  artist  made. 


ENGRAVINGS. 


Specimen  of  a  design  to  be  compared  with  the  deacription. 


101» 


THE    UL>li 


By  comparing  the  description  with  the  design,  tlic  reader  will 
see  how  miicli  in  all  cases  is  necessarily  left  to  the  inventive  ge- 
nius of  the  artist  in  respect  to  all  the  details  of  the  work.      Some- 


110  ENGRAVINGS. 


Common  mistake.  Designing  an  intellectual  art.  Preparation  of  the  wood. 

times  persons  imagine  that  being  able  to  draw  prettily  upon  paper 
or  Bristol-board,  from  engravings  or  from  drawings  made  by  other 
persons,  is  evidence  of  qualifications  to  make  original  designs  on 
wood  for  the  engraver,  but  a  very  few  trials  will  in  most  cases 
convince  them  how  great  is  the  mistake.  The  penciling  is  merely 
the  mechanical  part  of  the  work.  Designing,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  purely  an  intellectual  process,  and  it  requires  intellectual  quali- 
ties of  the  highest  order  to  perform  it  successfully.  There  must 
be  a  poetical  fancy,  great  powers  of  invention,  and  a  refined  and 
delicate  taste  combined.  The  putting  of  the  drawing  on  the  wood 
is  only  a  mechanical  rriode  of  expressing  the  conceptions  of  the 
mind.  The  success  of  the  work  will  depend,  of  course,  altogether 
on  what  the  conceptions  are  that  are  expressed,  and  this  depends 
on  the  structure  of  the  mind,  and  not  on  the  skill  or  training  of  the 
hand. 

In  other  words,  a  designer  is  a  ])oet  whose  hand  has  been  train- 
ed to  express  his  mental  conceptions  by  drawing.  Where  the 
conceptions  of  the  mind  are  meagre,  weak,  and  prosaic,  no  skill 
of  the  hand  will  be  of  any  avail,  for  the  hand  can  not  change  the 
conceptions.      It  can  only  express  them  as  they  are. 

In  drawing  on  the  wood,  the  artist  first  whitens  the  surface  of 
the  block  by  applying  a  composition  to  it.  He  usually  sketches 
his  design  first  in  outline  on  paper,  and  then  transfers  the  tracing 
to  this  white  surface  by  pressure.  He  then  goes  on  to  finish  the 
drawing.  It  Avould  be  difficult  to  draw  on  a  thick  block,  if  it  were 
placed  by  itself  upon  a  table  or  desk,  for  want  of  a  support  to  the 


ENGRAVINGS.  Ill 


The  drawing-board.  Materials  and  implements.  Models. 

hand,  especially  at  those  parts  of  the  design  "wliich  come  near  the 
edges.  To  remedy  this  inconvenience,  the  artist  uses  a  sort  of 
drawing-board  or  tablet  to  place  his  block  in  while  he  is  drawing 
upon  it.  This  tablet  consists  of  a  board  with  a  flat  border  on  two 
sides  of  it.  The  border  is  about  two  or  three  inches  wide,  and  is 
of  the  exact  thickness  of  the  block.  The  block  is  placed  \ipon 
this  board  in  the  angle  of  the  border,  and  thus  the  upper  side  of 
the  border  forms  a  continuous  surface  Avith  the  upper  side  of  tlie 
block,  and  serves  as  a  support  to  the  hand  in  drawing. 

Besides  this  tablet,  the  designer  requires  but  few  instruments  or 
implements  for  his  work.  He  nmst  have  a  A\iriety  of  })encils,  of 
various  degrees  of  hardness  and  blackness,  and  a  pair  of  compass- 
es, and  scales  of  equal  parts,  and  tracing-paper,  brushes,  and  India 
ink,  and  a  few  other  similar  materials,  and  this  is  all.  He,  how- 
ever, requires  many  aids  in  the  Avay  of  models  and  patterns.  It 
is  true  that,  in  all  original  designs  that  he  makes,  he  must  depend 
upon  his  own  inventive  fancy  for  the  general  concojition  of  the 
scene,  and  for  the  selection  and  disposition  of  the  objects  that  lie 
introduces  ;  but  in  drawing  the  details,  he  must  have  either  tliese 
objects  themselves  before  him,  or  else  good  ch-awings  of  them  made 
by  others,  except  in  the  case  of  those  comparatively  few  forms 
Avhich  he  has  drawn  so  often  that  he  already  knows  them  thor- 
ouglily.  This  makes  it  necessary  for  him  to  liave  in  Jiis  studio 
a  great  number  and  variety  of  models  of  forms,  and  also  book.s 
and  })ortfolios  of  engravings,  and  other  objects  and  works  of  art, 
to  aid  him,  and  these  generally  make  the  studio  a  very  atlrartivc 
place. 


112 


ENGRAVINGS. 

View  of  Dopler's  studio. 


THE    STUDIO. 


ENGKAVINQS.  113 


Mode  of  engraving  the  blocks.  Lines  of  the  shading.  The  shadow. 

When  the  artist  has  finished  a  set  of  designs,  the  blocks  con- 
taining the  drawings  arc  sent  to  the  engraver  to  be  cut.  This 
■work  of  cutting  consists,  as  has  been  ah'cady  cxphiined,  in  cutting 
out  all  the  wood  between  the  lines  of  the  design,  so  as  to  leave 
the  lines  themselves  in  relief. 

This  any  one  not  well  acquainted  Avith  the  subject  might  well 
suppose  to  be  impossible,  so  tine  are  the  lines,  and  so  close  togeth- 
er do  they  lie  in  a  good  drawing.  Just  look,  for  example,  at  the 
engraving  of  the  Studio,  and  observe  the  drawing  of  the  .<urlacc  of 
the  wall  above  and  around  the  picture  which  hangs  over  the  man- 
tle-piece. The  drawing  consists  of  a  series  of  fine  lines,  very  near 
together.  Now,  in  cutting  this  part  of  the  block,  the  Avorkman, 
with  a  fine  and  sharp-pointed  tool,  cuts  a  series  of  grooves,  leav- 
ing the  part  of  the  wood  which  represents  the  lines  in  relief.  You 
will  easily  imagine  how  nice  and  minute  an  operation  this  mu-st  be. 
And  yet  this  is  comparatively  a  very  simple  ease,  and  very  easy  to 
be  engraved.  Look,  for  another  example,  at  the  shadoAvs  of  the 
picture-frame  on  the  wall,  on  the  right-hand  side  of  it — that  is,  on 
the  side  opposite  the  light.  That  shadow  is  made  by  leaving  an 
extra  line  there  between  CA'ery  tAvo  of  the  regular  Avall-shading. 
It  Avill,  perhaps,  be  nccessaiy  to  examine  the  Avork  Avith  a  magni- 
fying-glass  to  see  distinctly,  though  the  general  ctfcct  j)roduced — 
that  is,  the  appearance  of  a  shadoAv,  is  visible  at  once  to  every  eye. 

It  is  so  Avith  every  portion  of  the  engi-aA'ing.  Examine  it  care- 
fully in  every  part,  and  wlicrcvcr  you  see  a  light  part  on  the  ])a- 
per,  there  you  may  know  that  the  Avood  has  been  cut  aAvny  ;  and 
Avherevcr  a'ou   see  a  line  or  a  lil.n-k    surtacr,  there  the  Avood  has 


114  ENGRAVINGS. 


The  engraver's  implements.  The  magnifying-glass. 

been  left.  The  ink,  of  course,  only  takes  effect  where  the  wood 
has  been  left,  and  thus  the  lines  and  shadings  of  the  design  are 
printed. 

Where  the  lines  of  the  drawing  cross  each  other,  as  they  often 
do,  there  the  difficulty  of  engraving  it  is  greatly  increased,  as  the 
wood  must  in  those  cases  be  cut  away  in  the  interstices  of  the 
crossings,  which  is  an  extremely  nice  and  delicate  operation. 

The  engraver,  when  engaged  at  his  work,  sits  at  a  high  table 
placed  in  a  clear  light.  Attached  to  the  stand  on  which  lie  sup- 
ports the  block  while  he  is  cutting  it,  there  is  a  magnifying-glass, 
placed  in  such  a  position  as  to  be  before  his  eye  Avhen  he  is  en- 
gaged at  his  work.  It  is  only  quite  a  coarse  style  of  engraving 
which  can  be  executed  with  the  naked  eye. 

The  process  of  cutting  the  block  is  very  laborious  and  slow. 
To  engrave  the  one  used  for  the  frontispiece  of  this  number  must 
have  required  not  less  than  ten  or  twelve  days  of  incessant  labor. 

When  the  block  is  engraved  it  is  sent  to  the  compositor,  and  he 
sets  it  in  its  place  in  the  page  in  which  it  is  to  be  printed,  having 
previously  adjusted  the  thickness  of  it  exactly  to  the  length  of  the 
types,  so  that  the  upper  surface  of  it  may  come  on  a  level  with  the 
faces  of  the  types,  and  thus  the  whole  be  printed  together. 

When  the  pages  are  thus  made  ready,  the  engravings  being  all 
inserted  in  their  places,  and  the  letter-press  being  made  con-ect, 
they  are  wedged  up  in  chases,  one  or  more  in  each,  according  to 
the  size  of  them,  and  are  sent  to  the  electrotyping  department  to 
be  electrotyped,  in  the  manner  already  explained. 


THE    PRESS.  .11. 


Essential  parts  of  a  printing-press.  The  IVainework  of  the  pna*. 


CHAPTKii,  XII. 

THE    PKEHS. 

In  tlic  engraving  on  the  next  page  Ave  lia\o  a  representation  ol" 
a  hand-press,  of  one  of  the  most  approved  modern  foriiL-^,  Tlie 
great  power-presses  that  are  driven  by  steam,  thout^h  much  hirger 
and  much  more  complicated  in  their  details,  are  substantially  the 
same  in  all  their  essential  parts,  and  the  principle  of  the  machine 
can  he  more  easily  understood  in  the  simpler  model. 

The  essential  parts  of  all  printing-presses  are  tliese : 


1.  The  Bed. 

2.  The  Tympan. 

3.  The  Frisket. 


4.  The  Carriage. 

5.  Tiie  Platen. 

6.  The  Power. 


These  will  he  explained  in  their  order. 

You  will  perceive,  however,  in  the  first  instance,  that  the  gener- 
al framework  of  the  press  consists  of  two  upright  pillars  support- 
ed on  a  stand,  with  a  sort  of  table  extending  horizontally  from  the 
])illars  toward  the  riglit.  The  pillars  are  connected  together  by 
two  very  solid  and  heavy  cross-pieces,  one  above  and  one  below. 
The  upper  one  of  these  cross-pieces  is  called  the  head  of  the  press. 
The  lower  one  forms  a  support  for  the  bed  when  the  pressure  is 
applied.  The  pressure  being  thus  exerted  between  these  two 
cross-pieces,  of  course  the  whole  strain  conies  upon  tliem,  and 
u])on  the  upright  pillars  to  which  they  are  secured.  It  is  neces- 
sarv.  liierefore,  lo  liavo  this  pari  of  (Ik'  fiaiiH'wiuk  vi-iy  strung. 


116 


THE   PRESS. 


Engraving  or  the  hand-press. 


Great  strain  upon  tbe  upright  pillars. 


THE    HAND-PRESS. 


In  former  times,  these  upright  pillars  were  made  of  veiy  thick 
and  solid  beams  of  wood,  with  heavy  blocks  of  wood,  for  cross- 
pieces,  bolted  and  screwed  firmly  to  them  above  and  below.  Aft- 
erward they  were  made  of  cast  iron,  the  upright  parts  and  the 
cross-pieces  being  all  cast  in  one  solid  mass.     At  the  present  time 


THE   PRESS.  117 


The  action  or  the  preas  described.  Functions  of  the  varioua  ports. 

wrought  iron  pillars  are  used,  and  thus  the  same  strength  i.s  at- 
tained with  a  much  greater  degree  ot"  lightness. 

Tiic  action  of  the  press  is  simply  as  follows:  ]>  is  the  Led.  Tlic 
form  to  be  printed  is  placed  upon  it.  In  the  engraving,  the  press 
is  represented  as  prepared  for  printing  one  of  the  hirge  j)lacards  for 
Harper's  Magazine.  We  see  the  words  in  the  form  as  it  hes  in 
its  place  upon  the  bed.  The  words  are,  of  course,  reversed,  Ijut 
they  will  come  right  when  printed,  or  when  soen  in  a  looking-glas.s. 
T  is  the  tympan.  The  sheet  to  be  printed  is  placed  upon  it.  F 
is  the  frisket.  The  use  of  the  ii'isket  is  to  iiold  the  sheet  close 
upon  the  tympan  Avhen  the  tympan  is  turned  over  upon  the  form. 
The  frisket  is  a  light  iron  frame,  covered  with  paper,  and  moving 
on  hinges,  with  openings  in  the  paper  to  correspond  with  the  pages 
of  the  form  that  is  to  be  printed.  AVhen  the  sheet  is  j)laced  upon 
the  tympan,  the  frisket  is  brought  down  over  it,  to  hold  the  paj)cr, 
and  then  the  tympan  is  brought  down  to  the  form.  Of  course, 
tlie  paper  comes  over  the  face  of  the  t}i)es,  which  have  been  pre- 
viously inked  by  the  rollers  seen  behind,  and  the  tympan  comes 
upon  the  back  of  it.  The  tympan  consists  of  a  piece  of  India-rub- 
ber cloth  stretched  upon  a  frame,  with  one  thickness  of  flannel  or 
something  similar  placed  beliind  it,  and  kept  in  its  place  by  a 
lining  of  nnislin.  Its  object  is  to  equalize,  as  it  were,  the  press- 
ure upon  the  sheet  of  paper  on  the  form. 

And  now  the  bed  of  the  press,  B,  eanying  the  form,  with  the 
tympan  and  frisket  folded  over  it,  is  run  Ijackward  along  the  rails, 
11,  K,  on  a  sort  of  concealed  carnage,  worked  ])y  a  crank,  seen  in 
the  side  of  the  rail,  until  it  is  under  the  ])la(cn,  I'.      This  ])laten 


118 


THE    PKESS. 


Comparison  of  the  modern  press  with  those  of  old  times. 


is  simply  a  thick  iron  plate,  strongly  braced,  and  arranged  so  as 
to  be  movable  through  a  short  space  np  and  down.  L  is  a  lever 
connected  with  a  joint  which  furnishes  tlie  power  for  pressing  the 
platen  down.  It  is  worked  by  means  of  the  long  handle  extend- 
ing to  the  right.  The  pressman  inins  the  form  in  under  the  plat- 
en with  his  left  hand  by  means  of  the  crank,  and  then,  with  his 
right  hand,  pulls  the  handle,  and  forces  the  platen  down  with  very 
great  power  upon  the  tympan,  thus  pressing  the  sheet  hard  upon 
the  face  of  the  types,  and  causing  it  to  take  the  impression.  Then 
pushing  back  the  handle,  the  two  spiral  springs  seen  above  on  each 
side  lift  the  platen  up,  and  the  form  is  released.     The  pressman 

then  runs  the  fonn  out,  as 
he  had  run  it  in,  by  turn- 
ing the  little  side  crank, 
and,  unfolding  the  frisket 
and  t}TTipan,  he  takes  out 
the  sheet  and  puts  in  an- 
other. While  he  is  doino: 
this,  the  roller,  seen  be- 
hind, by  means  of  some 
curious  machineiy  con- 
nected with  it,  comes  for- 
ward, and  inks  tlie  form 
so  as  to  be  ready  for  a 
new  impression. 

The  adjoining  engrav- 
ing is  a  coiTect  represent- 


FRANKLIN  S    PRESS, 


THE    PRESS.  119 


Great  progress  made  in  the  mechanical  arts  during  the  last  hair centar}'. 

ation  of  one  of  the  presses  used  by  Franklin  before  the  Rcvplu- 
tion.  It  is  of  comparatively  very  rude  construction,  but  the  read- 
er will  observe  that  the  same  essential  parts  arc  to  be  seen  in  it 
that  have  been  described.  The  frisket  is  folded  down,  and  so  does 
not  appear ;  but  the  tympan  is  there,  and  the  bed,  and  tiie  car- 
riage, and  the  platen,  and  the  power,  which  in  this  case  is  a  screw. 
The  great  difference  in  the  mechanism  of  the  two  machines  il- 
lustrates in  some  measure  the  immense  progress  that  has  been 
made  in  the  course  of  the  last  half  century  in  tiie  mechanical  arts  : 
and  yet,  to  get  a  full  and  complete  idea  of  this  progress,  we  must 
compare  Franklin's  press,  not  Avith  the  hand-press  already  de- 
scribed, but  with  one  of  the  gi-eat  poAvcr-presscs,  by  means  of 
wliich  almost  all  the  prodigious  printing  operations  of  the  present 
day  are  performed.  A  representation  of  one  of  these  ])resses,  as 
it  stands  in  the  great  press-room  of  the  llai-jicr  ]vstablislimcnt,  is 
seen  in  the  following  page.  It  is  too  complicated  to  be  fully  de- 
scribed in  detail,  but  some  of  the  more  prominent  features  of  it  may 
be  pointed  out.  The  girl  who  stands  at  it  is  called  the  feeder. 
She  has  a  pile  of  damped  paper  on  a  stand  over  the  press.  Tiic 
pile  is  inclined  a  little  toward  her,  so  as  to  make  it  easier  for  her 
to  draw  off  the  successive  sheets.  Under  this  pile  of  paper  is  tlic 
platen.  We  recognize  it  by  the  iron  braces  partially  seen  beneath 
tlie  stand  on  which  the  paper  is  placed.  The  form  is  beneath  the 
l)laten,  and  is  not  in  view.  It  rests  there  on  the  bed  of  tlie  press, 
Avhich  is  likewise  hidden.  To  the  right,  Ave  see  a  jiart  of  tiic  sys- 
tem of  rollers  by  Avhich  the  form  is  inked.  The  feeder  has  just 
])laced  a  sheet  to  be  printed  on  tlie  inclined  table  before  lier.     This 


120 


THE    TKESS. 


THE    PRESS.  121 


Description  of  one  of  (he  power-presses. 


table  is  called  the  ajn'on.  In  a  moment  a  set  of  iron  fingers  will 
come  up  from  below,  and,  taking  hold  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  pa- 
per, will  draw  it  in  under  the  platen,  between  the  platen  and  tli(^ 
form.  The  revolution  of  the  machinery  will  then  bring  an  im- 
mense power  into  operation,  by  means  of  cams  and  levers  seen  bt;- 
low,  by  which  the  bed  of  the  press,  with  the  form  and  sheet  upon 
it,  are  pressed  up  for  a  moment  "with  great  force  against  the  plat- 
en. This  makes  the  impression.  The  form  then  descends  again, 
and  the  sheet,  by  a  very  ingenious  and  peculiar  mechanism,  pass- 
es out  under  the  apron  on  which  the  feeder  originally  placed  it,  to- 
Avard  the  left,  where  the  edge  of  it  jumps  up  very  mysteriously 
upon  a  series  of  endless  tapes,  which  may  be  seen  in  the  engraving 
through  the  fly-wheel.*  From  these  it  is  taken  up  by  a  light 
frame,  formed  of  long  and  slender  rods  of  wood,  and  is  carried  over 
and  laid  down  upon  the  pile  at  the  extreme  left  of  tiie  engraving. 
Thus  the  work  goes  regularly  on,  with  no  attendance  whatever 
except  the  placing  of  each  successive  sheet  within  tlie  reach  of  the 
iron  fino;ci-s  which  are  to  cb^aw  it  into  the  machine. 

A'isitors  wdio  watch  the  motions  of  the  press  while  it  is  pcrt'orm- 
ing  its  work  are  always  particularly  pleased  with  the  life-like  ac- 
tions of  the  iron  fingers  that  come  up  and  take  iiold  of  tiie  lower 
edge  of  the  sheet  of  paper  on  tlic  apron,  and,  after  lifting  it  gently 
over  the  ledge  formed  on  the  lower  side  of  the  apron  to  prevent  its 

*  The  tenn  cntUrss,  wlicn  used  in  such  a  connection  as  tliirt.  in  the  dcitrription  of 
machinery,  denotes  that  the  hand,  or  chain,  or  wliatover  else  it  may  Iw  to  which  it  is 
applied,  passes  over  two  pulleys  at  a  distance  from  each  other,  and  is  joined  nl  iho 
ends,  so  as  to  revolve  confinuouslv  between  and  over  the  pulleys 


122  THE   PRESS. 


Ingenious  mechanical  contrivances.  Appearance  of  the  press-room. 

sliding  down,  draw  it  in  under  the  platen  to  be  printed ;  and 
Avhen  the  sheet  comes  out  again,  under  the  apron,  after  receiving 
the  impression,  they  wonder  by  what  means  the  edge  of  it  is  made 
to  leap  up  so  dexterously  upon  the  tape-lines  that  are  to  carry  it 
away.  They  often  watch  this  motion  very  closely  a  long  while 
without  being  able  to  discover  how  the  effect  is  produced.  The 
explanation  is,  that  the  edge  of  the  sheet  is  blown  up  by  a  puff  of 
wind  from  below.  There  is  a  pair  of  bellows  concealed  in  the 
frame-work  of  the  press,  and  at  precisely  the  right  instant  the  rev- 
olution of  the  machinery  gives  a  putf  from  it  up  through  a  row  of 
holes  exactly  under  the  edge  of  tlie  sheet  of  paper.  The  impulse 
of  this  puif  throws  the  edge  of  the  sheet  up  to  the  tapes,  and  the 
long  fingers  of  the  frame  which  is  to  lift  it  over  and  place  it  upon 
the  pile  having  previously  laid  themselves  between  the  tapes,  the 
sheet  is  received  upon  them,  and  immediately  afterward  is  earned 
over.  In  the  engraving,  this  frame,  which  is  called  a  fly,  has  just 
carried  over  one  printed  sheet,  and  is  coming  back  for  another. 

There  are  nearly  thirty  of  these  presses  in  the  great  press-room, 
and  there  is  something  imposing  and  almost  sublime  in  the  calm 
and  steady  dignity  with  which  the  ponderous  engines  continue 
their  ceaseless  toil.  There  is,  indeed,  a  real  dignity  and  a  real 
grace  in  the  movements  which  they  perform.  The  observer  looks 
down  the  room  from  the  elevated  desk  of  the  foreman,  and  surveys 
the  scene  Avith  great  interest  and  pleasure,  Avondering  at  the  com- 
plicated massiveness  of  the  constructions,  and  at  the  multitude  of 
Avheels,  and  pulleys,  and  bands  that  mingle  and  combine  their  mo- 
tions Avith  the  revolutions  of  the  machinerv.      His  attention  is 


DRYING   AND    PRESSING   THE    SHEETS.  123 

Storage  of  the  electrotype  plates.  Dr)  ing  and  pressing. 

particularly  attracted  to  the  action  of  the  Jiies,  as  they  rise  in  suc- 
cession, one  after  another,  in  all  parts  of  the  room,  bringint^  up 
tlie  Leautifully  printed  sheets  from  the  press,  and,  carrying  tliem 
over,  lay  them  gently  down  upon  the  gradually  accumulating  pile. 
When  all  the  fomis  of  tlie  Look  which  is  in  hand  have  been 
"worked  oif,"  as  tlie  phrase  is,  the  electrot^-jjc  plates  of  the  sev- 
eral pages,  having  been  previously  separated  from  the  blocks,  are 
taken  back  to  the  subten-anean  vaults,  and  arc  there  safely  stored 
away  in  the  compartments  assigned  to  them.  The  place  of  tlie 
entrance  to  these  vaults  was  shown,  and  some  account  of  their  ex- 
tent Avas  given,  in  a  previous  chapter.  The  number  of  plates  ac- 
cumulated there,  enormous  as  it  is,  is  increasing  at  the  rate  of, 
upon  an  average,  two  hundred  a  day. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

DRYING    AND    PRESSING    THE    SHEETS. 

Sheets  of  paper  to  be  printed  require,  as  has  already  been  re- 
marked, to  be  made  damp  before  being  put  upon  the  ])rcss.  When 
perfectly  dry,  they  do  not  take  the  ink  well.  Of  course,  ai'ter  tlu-y 
are  printed,  the  first  process  is  to  dry  them. 

Newspapers  are  not  dried,  but  arc  distributed  to  the  subscribers 
just  as  they  come  from  the  press.  There  is  not  time  to  dry  them, 
for  they  must  ordinarily  be  issued  immediately,  liut  sheets  wliifli 
are  to  be  folded  and  formed  into  books  require  to  be  dried  and 
then  to  be  pressed.  Tiiis  pressing  is  necessary,  not  only  for  the 
purpose  of  flattening  out  the  Avari)iii<2:s  and  twistiiiu^-*  in  the  sheets." 


124  DRYINa   AND   PRESSING   THE    SHEETS. 

The  drying-room.  Mode  of  placing  tlie  sheets  on  the  drying-frames. 

produced  by  their  having  been  wet  and  dried,  but  also  to  remove 
the  little  burr  or  protrusion  in  the  paper  made  by  the  pressure  of 
the  types. 

The  process  of  drying  the  sheets  has  already  been  referred  to, 
and  the  place  where  it  is  performed  is  shown  in  the  section  on  page 
42.  It  is  in  the  second  story,  and  in  the  first  division  of  that 
story  toward  the  left.  The  opposite  engraving  gives  an  enlarged 
view  of  tlie  drying  apparatus.  The  men  on  the  left  are  bringing 
the  sheets  to  be  dried.  They  take  them  down  from  a  stack  of 
sheets  piled  up  in  the  racks  so  high  that  it  requires  a  ladder  to 
reach  them.  The  sheets  are  moved  from  place  to  place  about  the 
floor  by  means  of  trucks.  One  of  these  trucks  stands  by  itself  in 
the  foreground.  In  the  centre  of  the  j)icture,  three  men  are  em- 
ployed in  placing  the  sheets  upon  one  of  the  frames,  which  has 
been  drawn  out  for  the  purpose  from  the  drying-room.  The  work- 
men put  tho  sheets  on  the  lowermost  bars  of  the  frame  with  their 
hands.  The  higher  bars  are  reached  by  means  of  a  pole,  with  a 
eross-bar  at  the  top  of  it.  The  form  of  this  instrument,  and  the 
manner  in  which  the  workmen  load  it  with  the  sheets — several  at 
a  time — is  seen  by  the  action  of  the  man  who  is  standing  at  the 
truck,  near  the  frame.  When  the  sheets  are  put  upon  the  pole  in 
this  way,  they  are  lifted  up  and  placed  across  the  upper  bars  of  the 
frame,  as  we  see  in  the  action  of  the  central  figure  of  the  group. 

When  all  the  bars  of  the  fi-ames  are  filled  mth  sheets,  the  frame 
itself  is  pushed  into  the  drying  compartment.  The  end  of  each 
frame  consists  of  a  board  of  the  same  width  as  the  distance  at 
which  the  frames  stand  apart  when  they  are  in  their  places,  and 


DRYING    AND    PRESSINC.    Till:    SHEETS, 


125 


Construction  and  arrangement  of  the  drying-room 


1  iiL   u.;  .  i: 


lliiis  these  boards,  when  tlie  frames  arc  all  in,  fomi  one  continuous 
]):irtition,  which  shuts  off  the  compartment  closely  from  tlic  rest 
of  the  room,  and  keeps  the  hot  air  within  it  confined  till  tlie  sheets 
are  dried.  Of  course,  there  is  a  proper  arrangement  for  ventilation, 
in  order  tliat  the  vapors  produced  hy  the  process  of  drying  may  bo 
carried  away. 


126 


DRYING   AND   PRESSING   THE    SHEETS. 


View  of  the  hydraulic  presses. 


IIYPKWLIC    PRESSES 


DRYING    AND    PRESSING   THE    SHEETS.  127 

Account  or  the  hydraulic  pump  and  of  the  hydraulic  presucs. 

There  are  over  forty  of  these  frames  in  the  compartment.  They 
■jvill  contain  twelve  hundred  sheets  each,  making  about  fifty  thou- 
sand sheets  in  all  that  may  be  dried  at  one  time.  The  process  of 
drying  requires  about  a  day. 

The  frames  can  be  moved  in  and  out  very  easily,  for  tliey  are 
all  suspended  by  pulleys  or  trucks,  that  run  upon  little  railways 
placed  near  the  ceiling  above. 

When  the  sheets  are  dried  they  are  to  be  pressed.  The  press- 
ure is  applied  by  means  of  a  hydraulic  pump,  \  view  of  this 
engine  is  seen  on  the  right,  in  the  foreground.  Though  it  does 
not  appear  large  in  the  engra\'ing,  the  force  of  pressure  which  it 
exerts  is  not  less  than  five  hundred  tons.  It  consists  simply  of  a 
double-acting  force-pump,  with  cylinders  of  small  bore,  but  with  a 
great  force  from  the  engine  to  act  upon  the  pistons.  This  forces 
the  water  through  a  very  strong  pipe  beneath  the  floor  to  other 
cylinders,  fitted  also  with  pistons,  under  the  presses.  These  oth- 
er cylinders  are  large.  Of  course,  whatever  force  is  applied  to  the 
small  pistons  in  the  pumps,  an  equal  amount  of  pressure  is  pro- 
duced on  every  square  inch  of  the  large  pistons  in  the  cylinders 
under  the  presses,  and  thus  a  prodigious  pressure  on  the  sheets  of 
paper  is  the  result. 

We  see  the  upper  part  of  one  of  these  large  cylinders  under  tiic 
first  of  the  presses  on  the  left.  Above  it  is  a  square  iron  plate, 
which  forms  a  base  on  which  the  pile  of  sheets  of  paj)er  to  be 
pressed  rests.  This  plate,  like  those  of  similar  function  in  the 
printing-press,  is  called  the  platen.  It  is  very  thick,  and  is  stif- 
fened beneath  liv  iron  braces,  whicli  are  ]iartially  seen  in  thf  en- 


128  DllYlNG   AND   PJiESSING   THE    SHEETS. 

Mechanical  contrivances.  Shifting  the  sheets. 

graving.  The  little  circular  handle  which  is  seen  rising  up  out  of 
the  floor,  opposite  the  end  of  the  press,  is  connected  with  a  valve, 
by  which  the  water  in  the  great  cylinders  may  be  let  off,  and  the 
pressure  relieved. 

The  presses  themselves  stand  in  a  row  at  the  end  of  the  room. 
They  occupy  the  right  hand  of  the  second  story  of  the  building, 
as  shown  in  a  sectional  view  of  the  diiferent  stories  on  page  42. 
Each  press  may  be  connected  with  the  pump,  or  disconnected  from 
it  at  pleasure,  so  that  one  may  be  giving  up  or  receiving  a  supply 
of  sheets  while  the  others  are  full  and  in  action. 

The  manner  of  placing  the  sheets  in  the  press  is  shown  in  the 
engraving,  where  a  man  is  seen  at  the  third  press  in  the  row,  stand- 
ing on  a  step-ladder,  and  making  up  the  pile.  The  arrangement 
for  taking  this  pile  out  when  it  has  been  sufficiently  pressed  is  ex- 
ceedingly ingenious  and  convenient.  In  front  of  the  row  of  presses 
is  a  little  raihvay,  as  seen  in  the  engraving.  This  railway  is  trav- 
ersed by  two  small  cars,  one  of  which  is  seen  distinctly  in  the 
foreground.  The  other  is  in  the  distance,  and  is  partly  concealed. 
Tliese  cars  serve  the  purpose  of  bridges  to  convey  the  piles  of 
pressed  paper  across  the  railway,  or  as  cars  to  move  along  it,  as 
may  be  required.  For  this  purpose,  two  short  rails  are  laid  across 
each  of  them.  We  see  these  cross-rails  very  distinctly  in  the 
bridge  which  stands  in  the  foreground.  By  means  of  these  cross- 
rails,  the  whole  pile  of  paper  may  be  run  out  upon  the  bridge ;  for 
the  pile  itself,  while  in  the  press,  rests  upon  trucks  and  rails  above 
the  platen,  which  are,  however,  concealed  from  view.  The  ma- 
chinery is  so  arranged  that  when  the  bridge  is  placed  opposite  one 


DKVlNa    AND    PKES.SINU    THi:    .SHEKlfi.  121* 

Tbe  railways.  The  llyiag  bridges.  Paateboard  abeeu. 

of  the  presses,  the  rails  on  the  bridge  correspond  exactly  with  thr, 
rails  on  the  platen  in  the  press,  which  tiic  pile  of  paper  rests  upon, 
and  also  with  the  rails  of  a  square  stand  placed  opposite,  just  out- 
side the  long  rails.  We  see  one  of  these  stands,  with  a  low  pile 
of  paper  upon  it,  where  the  boy  is  at  work  taking  the  })aper  away. 

In  a  word,  by  trundling  the  bridge  along  the  railway  in  the 
floor,  it  may  be  placed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  railway  above, 
ruiming  across  from  the  presses  to  the  stand  outside,  by  means 
of  which  the  whole  pile  of  pressed  sheets  may  be  rolled  out  at  once 
to  a  situation  Avhcrc  the  boys  can  come  conveniently  to  take  tiiem 
away,  wliilc,  in  the  mean  thne,  the  press  itself  is  at  liberty  to  be 
tilled  up  at  once  again. 

These  facilities  for  moving  the  masses  of  paper  are  the  more 
necessary,  on  account  of  the  great  quantity  that  the  presses  receive 
at  a  time.  The  stack  is  nearly  six  feet  high,  and  Avcighs  about 
a  ton. 

Each  sheet,  when  it  is  put  into  the  press,  is  placed  between  two 
sheets  of  thin,  but  very  smooth  and  hard  pasteboard.  It  is  very 
plain  that  the  sheets  would  not  be  pressed  smootli  by  coming  in 
juxtaposition  with  each  other.  The  processes  of  putting  the  sheets 
in  between  these  pasteboards,  and  taking  them  out  again  after 
they  are  pressed,  is  quite  an  interesting  one,  on  account  of  the  very 
systematic  and  rapid  manner  in  which  it  is  pei-tbrmcd.  Opposite 
the  presses,  and  just  beyond  the  right-hand  margin  of  the  last  en- 
graving, there  stands  a  range  of  very  wide  tables  where  thi.^  work 
is  done.  It  re(|uires  two  men  at  each  table  to  do  it.  One  takw 
out  from  between  two  sheets  of  pasteboard  the  .«hect  of  paprr  th.it 

in  I 


130  FORWARDING. 


Changing  the  sheets.  Gathering.  The  signatures. 

has  been  pressed,  and  the  other,  at  the  same  instant  almost,  puts 
another  in,  shifting  the  several  sheets,  both  of  paper  and  pasteboard, 
from  pile  to  pile,  in  the  course  of  the  manipulation,  with  a  dexteri- 
ty and  rapidity  that  is  surprising.  As  fast  as  a  sufficient  number 
of  the  rearranged  sheets  are  ready,  a  boy  takes  them  away,  and 
places  them  in  the  press,  while  another  boy  continually  brings  a 
fresh  supply  of  those  that  have  been  pressed  to  take  their  places. 
The  pressing  which  the  sheets  receive  in  this  operation  makes 
an  astonishing  diiference  in  the  smoothness  and  beauty  of  the  page 
when  the  book  comes  to  be  bound. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

FORWARDING. 

When  the  sheets  are  folded,  they  are  gat/cered,  as  it  is  termed ; 
that  is,  a  pile  of  each  sort  being  laid  out  along  a  table,  a  girl 
takes  from  each  pile  one,  and  puts  them  together  in  the  proper  or- 
der, so  as  to  form  the  book  or  pamphlet. 

These  separate  sheets  are  all  marked  at  the  foot  of  the  outer 
page  of  each  of  them  with  what  is  called  the  signature,  that  is, 
with  a  letter  or  figure  which  denotes  Avhat  sheet  it  is  of  the  series. 
The  girl  glances  her  eye  at  these  signatures  when  gathering  the 
sheets,  and  thus  makes  sure  that  there  is  no  mistake,  but  that  she 
is  taking  them  in  their  proper  order.  You  will  see  these  signatures 
in  this  book  by  looking  at  the  foot  of  the  pages  following  every  six- 
teenth page — that  is,  at  the  foot  of  pages  17,  33,  49,  &c.  You 
will  observe  that  the  letters  succeed  each  other  in  regular  order. 


FOKWAKUING. 


i;;i 


The  process  of  stabbing. 


Sewing. 


Sawing  the  baeka. 


If  tlie  work  i?^  a  pamplilet,  as,  for  example,  a  miinbtr  uf  tlit- 

]\Iagazinc  or  of  the  Stury  IJook.s, 
it  is  stitc/ted.  If  it  i.s  a  Louml 
book,  it  is  to  be  ,scu:ed. 

To   proj)avc   the   pamphlet   lur 
stitchiii<^,  tiirec   holes    arc    made 


through  the  sheets  by  means  of 
a  machine  called  a  dabbnuj  ma- 
chine. The  pamphlet  to  be  stab- 
^  bed  is  laid  by  the  Avorkman  upon 
a  flat  board,  and  then,  by  means 
of  a  pedal,  or  lever,  worked  by 
the  foot,  three  steel  points  arc 
brought  down  through  the  paper, 
so  as  to  make  the  three  holes  re- 
quired for  the  twine  by  which 
the  pamphlet  is  to  be  stitched. 
You  will  see  these  holes,  and  tht; 
twine  passing  through  them,  by  examining  any  pampldct. 

Books  that  are  tc  be  bound  arc  seiocd,  as  it  is  called ;  this  is 
quite  a  different  process  from  stitching.  To  prepare  the  books  for 
being  sewed,  the  first  step  is  to  fiuiv  small  grooves  through  the 
backs  of  them,  deep  enough  to  receive  the  bands  of  twint-  to  which 
each  sheet  is  secured.  The  sawing  of  these  grooves  is  pcrlbrmcd 
in  what  is  called  a  sawing;  machine.  This  machine  consists  df  a 
table,  with  two  iron  rails  upon  it  running  iViuii  niij  ti»  ciiii.  (  )n 
ihoso  rails  is  a  sort  of  1)o\,  or  rather  tVamc,  with  sides  ami  back. 


'^%^ 


132 


roRWARIMNU. 


View  of  the  machine  for  sawing  the  backs. 


THE    SAWINQ    MACHINE. 


Imt  no  front.     This  frame  traverses  the  table  to  and  fro  on  the 


FORWAia»iN(i.  i;i;{ 


Account  or  the  sawing  machine.  Tables  (or  sewing  books. 

rails.  The  workman  takes  a  quantity  of  folded  sheets  from  a  sujv 
plj  made  ready  for  him  on  the  tallies  near,  and,  placing  tiiem  in 
this  frame,  he  wedges  them  in  securely.  Beneath  tlie  tabic  arc 
placed  several  circular  saws,  arranged  at  the  proper  distance  from 
each  other.  The  teeth  of  these  saws  project  a  little  above  tlie  ta- 
ble, through  an  opening  made  in  it,  in  sucli  a  manner  that,  when 
the  frame  is  run  along  over  them,  the  grooves  are  sawed  in  the 
backs  of  the  sheets. 

The  sheets  are  then  to  be  sewed.  This  operation  i.s  perturmed 
by  great  numbers  of  girls,  seated  at  long  tables,  extending  in  rows 
along  the  room,  as  shown  in  the  sectional  view  in  page  42.  The 
sewing  of  the  books  is  a  great  work.  The  ranges  of  tables  de- 
voted to  it  are  so  extensive  as  to  furnish  accommodations  for  one 
hundred  girls,  and  each  place  is  provided  with  a  seat  and  a  stool, 
that  may  both  be  raised  or  depressed,  to  suit  the  comfort  and  con- 
venience of  the  occupant.*  Every  visitor  who  sees  these  girls  at 
their  work  is  struck  with  the  extreme  rapidity  and  dexterity  of 
their  movements,  and  with  the  healthy,  and  happy,  and  highly  at- 
tractive appearance  which  they  themselves  and  tlie  scene  of  their 
labors  exhibit.  Indeed,  so  far  as  my  observation  goes,  one  of  the 
chief  subjects  of  remark  with  strangers,  after  coming  away  from  a 
visit  to  the  whole  establishment,  is  the  intelligent  and  manly  bear- 
ing of  the  men  who  are  employed  in  it,  and  the  attractive  ajjpear- 
ance  and  lady-like  manners  of  the  girls. 

♦  The  number  of  girls  employed  in  the  fjildint'-room  in  12.  in  the  »cviinj{-room. 
100;  in  the  gathering  and  folding-room,  150;  and  in  the  |.ri-sH-ro.)m.  30.  niaknii; 
nearly  300  in  all. 


]84 


i'ORWAKDING. 


View  of  the  cutting  machine  and  of  the  great  shears. 


MAKBLING.  135 


Machine  for  trimming  the  edges  of  books.  Martiling. 

On  the  opposite  page  is  an  engraving  of  one  of  the  ditierent  kinds 
of  machines  by  which  the  edges  of  the  books,  when  sewed,  an*  triiii- 
raed.  A  pile  of  the  books  is  screwed  up  very  tight  in  a  massive 
frame,  as  seen  in  the  engraving,  and  then  a  long  and  straight 
blade  of  steel  is  made  to  traverse  to  and  fro  with  great  rapidity, 
the  frame  gradually  rising,  as  the  blade  cuts  its  way  through  the 
pile  of  books,  until  the  edges  of  the  whole  pile  are  trimmed  smooth. 
The  books  are  then  turned,  and  the  same  operation  is  repeated  on 
the  ends. 

The  great  shears  seen  in  operation  at  one  side  are  used  fur  cut- 
ting up  sheets  of  pasteboard  to  form  covers  for  the  books. 

These  preliminaiy  processes,  which  all  belong  to  tlie  department 
of  binding  caWcii  foncarding,  are  performed  chietly  in  the  Hftli 
story  of  the  Cliff  Street  building,  as  is  shown  more  ])lainly  in  tin* 
sectional  view. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

MARBLINO. 

In  a  comer  of  the  forwarding  apartment  there  is  a  small  inclo- 
sure,  partially  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  room  by  low  parti- 
tions, that  is  appropriated  to  the  process  of  mnrhHtuj.  'J'liis  is 
one  of  the  most  curious  processes  to  be  seen  in  the  whole  estab- 
lishment. There  are  two  fonns  of  it — one  the  marbling  of  sheets 
of  paper,  and  the  other  tliat  of  the  edges  of  books.  Tlie  process 
is  essentially  the  same  in  both  cases.  It  consists  of  sprinkling 
the  colors  first  upon  the  surface  of  a  licpiiil,  in  a  sort  of  tank,  .-iiul 


136 


MARBLING. 


General  account  of  the  marbling  process. 


then  taking  them  off  upon  tlie  surface  to  be  marbled  by  bringing 
the  paper,  or  the  edges  of  the  book,  down  gently  upon  the  colors, 
and  thus,  as  it  were,  sponging  them  up  from  off  the  surface  of  the 
liquid  on  which  they  were  floating. 

One  would  suppose  that  su.ch  an  operation  as  this  would  be  per- 
fectly impossible,  and  visitors  who  witness  it  for  the  first  time  re- 
gard it  with  astonishment  and  delight. 


THE    MARBLINO-ROOM. 


The  engraving  represents  a  workman  in  tlie  act  of  taking  up  a 
sheet  of  paper  which  he  had  just  before  laid  down  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  liquid  in  the  tank.      On  the  riglit  is  a  bench  containing 


MAKBLlNli. 


The  pots  of  colors.  Mode  of  sprinkling  them  upon  the  sizing. 

the  pots  of  colors.  They  are  mixed  with  water,  and  are  of  the 
proper  consistency  to  sprinkle  easily  from  a  brush.  TJiey  contain, 
however,  some  composition  which  prevents  their  blending  with  each 
other  when  sprinkled,  one  after  another,  upon  the  surface  of  tho 
liquid  in  the  tank.  Each  drop,  when  falling  upon  the  spot  made 
by  the  preceding  drop,  instead  of  mixing  Avith  it,  remains  perffctlv 
distinct,  only  crowding  the  color  of  the  preceding  drop  away  a  lit- 
tle to  make  room  for  itself,  as  we  shall  presently  sec. 

The  pots  contain  but  a  small  quantity  of  coloring  matter,  little 
more  than  enough  to  cover  the  bottom  of  them.  If  it  were  other- 
wise, too  much  would  be  taken  up  by  the  bioishes.  Tlie  Inu.-^he.s 
themselves  are  of  somewhat  peculiar  form,  tlic  bristles  cxtiMuling 
laterally  more  than  is  usual.  When  tlie  surface  of  the  liquid  in 
the  tank  is  ready  to^receive  the  sprinkling,  the  workman  takes  one 
of  the  brushes,  and  rolls  it  between  his  liands,  by  the  handle,  be- 
fore he  takes  it  out  of  the  pot,  in  order  to  throw  off  the  superfluous 
coloi'ing  from  it ;  and  then,  holding  it  over  the  tank,  he  proceeds 
to  sprinkle  the  surface  of  the  liquid  with  it,  throwing  off  minute 
drops  from  the  brush  by  a  peculiar  and  very  dexterous  motion. 
The  drops  fall  upon  the  surface  of  the  liquid  in  the  tank  like  drop.>< 
of  rain  upon  a  pond,  only,  instead  of  sinking  and  disappearing, 
they  remain  on  the  surface,  spreading  into  pretty  large  and  exceed- 
ingly well  defined  and  beautiful  circular  spots  of  red,  blue,  green, 
or  violet,  as  the  case  may  be.  Tlie  drops  spread,  some  of  them  to 
the  size  of  a  quarter  of  a  dollar,  and  are  almost  matheiiiatically 
perfect  in  their  form. 

Tlie  Avorkman  tlien  takes  aiiollier  lnush  fVum  anotlier  |Mif.  and 


138 


MARBLING. 


The  colors  do  not  mingle. 


Mode  of  sprinkling  them. 


SPRINKLING    THE    COLORS. 


sprinkles  the  surface  again  with  another  color.  If  the  first  color 
was  red,  the  second  may  perhaps  he  blue.  In  this  case,  the  blue 
drops,  instead  of  mingling  with  the  red,  remain  perfectly  distinct 
from  them,  crowding  them,  moreover,  more  or  less  out  of  their 
places,  and  modifying  the  forms  of  them.  For  example,  if  a  blue 
drop  were  to  fall  directly  upon  the  centre  of  a  red  spot  that  was 
produced  by  the  previous  sprinkling,  it  would  crowd  out  the  red 
color  to  a  wider  circumference,  while  it  would  itself  occupy  the 


MAKHMNi;.  l;;ii 


Curious  eflects  produced  by  the  Bprinkling. 


ccntro,  and  avc  sliouki  liave,  in  that  case,  a  central  blue  spot  sur- 
rounJed  hy  a  concentric  ring  of  red.  On  the  other  hand,  if  thi- 
Lluc  drop  were  to  fall  upon  the  margin  of  the  red  drop,  then  it 
Avould  push  one  half  of  the  red  spot  back  upon  itself,  straiglitening 
the  side  that  it  came  in  contact  -with,  and  expanding  the  opposite 
side.  The  result  would  be,  in  this  case,  a  large  circular  spot,  one 
half  of  which  would  be  blue  and  the  other  half  red,  the  boundary 
between  the  two  being  a  straight  line  passing  from  one  side  of  tlie 
spot,  through  the  centre,  to  the  other  side.  Of  course,  it  is  not 
often  that  either  of  these  two  cases  precisely  occurs.  The  drops 
of  blue  fall  indiscriminately  all  over  the  surface  of  the  liquid  in  the 
tank,  and  come  upon  tlic  drops  of  red  in  every  variety  of  position, 
producing,  consequently,  an  infinite  variety  of  forms  by  tlio  com- 
binations of  the  two  colors. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  workman  continues  the  pi*ocess  of  sprink- 
ling, lie  takes  next  some  other  color :  it  may  be  yellow,  or  green, 
or  dark  purple.  Whatever  it  may  be,  the  third  set  of  drops  fall 
as  the  others  did,  each  making  for  itself  a  place  by  crowding  the 
others  out  of  the  way,  and  producing  new  and  still  more  compli- 
cated varieties  of  form.  'J'liis  sprinkling  is  followed  by  another 
and  another,  until  at  length  there  may  be  five,  six,  or  eight  differ- 
ent colors  combined,  and  tiien,  on  closely  examining  tlie  surface, 
you  Avill  perceive  that  the  original  red  is  still  entirely  distinct  fVoni 
the  colors  that  iiave  been  subsequently  added,  not  having  mijKjlea 
with  them  at  all,  even  at  the  lines  of  contact  with  them,  though 
the  form  of  the  spaces  wiiicli  it  occupies  is  entirely  changed.  The 
original  circles  lia\'c  cntirelv  disaiip<';irc(l,  and  the  red  is  now  seen 


140  MARBLINCJ. 


Various  modifications  of  the  coloring.  Different  patterns. 


occupying  only  the  curved  and  irregular  interstices  which  lie  be- 
tween the  drops  formed  by  subsequent  sprinklings.  In  a  word, 
the  whole  surface  of  the  liquid  in  the  tank  has  become  covered 
with  brilliant  and' variegated  colors,  each  different,  one  being  sep- 
arated from  the  next  by  distinct  and  well-defined  lines,  that  wave 
and  curve  among  each  other  in  beautiful  and  endlessly-varied  con- 
figurations. 

The  reader  will  understand  all  this  much  better  by  examining 
some  piece  of  marble  paper,  if  he  can  iind  a  specimen  at  hand. 
By  counting  the  number  of  colors,  you  can  ascertain  how  many 
sprinklings  were  required  for  that  particular  sheet,  and  by  observ- 
ing the  forms  of  the  different  masses  of  color  in  the  light  of  the 
explanation  given  above,  you  can  almost  detex'mine  the  precise  or- 
der in  which  the  different  sprinklings  were  applied. 

Sometimes  the  arrangement  of  the  colors  on  the  liquid  in  the 
tank  is  modified  in  a  very  curious  Avay  by  drawing  a  sort  of  rake 
or  comb  along  the  surface  of  it.  The  instruments  used  for  this 
purpose  are  of  different  kinds,  varying  in  the  fineness  of  the  teeth, 
and  in  their  distance  from  each  other.  These  teeth,  being  dra^vn 
over  the  surface  of  the  liquid  in  the  tank,  have  the  effect  of  draw- 
ing the  colors,  as  they  term  it,  and  thus  modifying  the  configura- 
tions in  a  very  curious  manner,  producing  a  sort  of  honey-combed 
or  scalloped  appearance  very  difficult  to  describe,  but  which  those 
who  have  seen  it  will  easily  remember.  This  is  called  the  comb 
pattern. 

When  at  length  the  sprinkled  surface  is  ready,  the  workman 
takes  a  sheet  of  white  paper,  supposing  that  it  is  marbled  pajjer 


.MARBLING.  141 


How  the  colors  are  taken  up  by  the  paper.  <  Number  of  pattemii. 

that  he  now  wishes  to  produce,  and  lays  it  carefully  down  upon 
the  liquid,  beginning  at  one  corner,  and  letting  the  sheet  graduallv 
down  until  it  lies  wholly  on  the  liquid.  He  then  immediately 
}>roceeds  to  apply  a  second  sheet,  the  tank  lieiiig  of  a  size  to  re- 
ceive two  sheets  at  a  time.  He  then  takes  the  two  sheets  uj) 
again,  one  after  the  other,  when  it  is  found  that  the  beautifully 
variegated  colors  which  have  been  floating  on  the  licpiid  have  been 
wholly  transferred  to  the  sheets.  They  have  been  taken  up  by 
the  paper,  and  so  completely  absorbed,  too,  into  the  substance  of 
it,  that  the  surface,  all  wet  and  dripping  as  it  is,  may  be  rubbed 
Avith  the  finger  without  in  any  degree  disturbing  the  colors.  The 
siicets,  as  they  arc  taken  up,  are  laid  across  a  wooden  rod,  and 
hung  upon  a  frame  near  by  to  drain  and  dry.  We  sec  the  frame 
in  the  engraving,  with  the  sheets  hanging  on  it,  to  the  loft  of  the 
workman. 

Of  course,  the  number  of  patterns  which  can  be  formed  by  the 
different  combinations  of  colors,  and  the  different  modes  of  apply- 
ing them,  are  infinitely  A-aried.  If,  for  example,  all  the  colors  that 
are  to  be  used  in  the  pattern  are  applied  to  the  liquid  before  the 
comb  is  drawn  over  the  surface  of  it,  then  one  effect  will  be  pro- 
duced ;  but  if  one  of  the  colors  is  reserved  until  after  the  combing, 
and  then  sprinkled  on,  the  effect,  as  may  easily  be  seen,  would  be 
totally  different,  and  this  difference  may  be  varied  by  rfsir\  ing 
any  one  of  the  dozen  different  colors  that  are  to  be  api)li«'d.  And 
so  Avith  every  otlicr  stop  in  the,  oonq)licatod  process. 

There  is  one  peculiar  pattern,  callod  the  n-Kn  patti-ni.  it  is 
characterized  by  a  series  of  waves  in  the  coloring.      'I'hf   waves 


142  MAKBLING. 


The  wave  pattern.  How  it  is  produced.  The  burnishing. 

succeed  each  other  at  short  and  regular  intervals,  passing  diagon- 
ally across  the  sheet.  This  eftect  is  produced  simply  by  the  mode 
of  laying  the  sheet  upon  the  colors.  The  workman  begins  at  one 
corner ;  but  then,  instead  of  letting  the  successive  portions  of  the 
paper  down  by  a  slow  and  uniform  motion,  he  gives  it,  very  dex- 
terously, a  series  of  gentle  impulses,  letting  down  the  paper  a  short 
space  at  each  impulse.  This  occasions  a  sort  of  fluctuation  on 
the  surface  of  the  liquid,  and  the  colors,  whatever  they  may  be, 
are  taken  up  in  waves. 

Then,  besides  the  fine  combs,  there  are  large  and  coarse  ones, 
with  teeth  several  inches  apart,  by  means  of  which  the  colors  may 
be  drawn  in  various  Avays  over  the  surface  of  the  liquid,  so  as  to 
produce  the  appearance  of  streams,  and  an  endless  variety  of  other 
beautiful  configurations. 

It  will  easily  be  seen  that  the  number  of  patterns  which  may 
be  formed  by  the  different  combinations  of  these  and  other  similar 
elements  is  literally  infinite,  and,  of  course,  to  be  a  good  marbler, 
a  man  must  possess  excellent  judgment  and  taste,  as  well  as  great 
skill. 

The  beautiful  gloss  which  Ave  see  upon  finished  marble  paper 
does  not  appear  upon  it  Avhen  it  first  comes  from  the  marbler's 
hands.  This  gloss  is  the  result  of  a  subsequent  process  of  hur- 
nishbig,  which  is  represented  by  the  engraving  on  the  opposite 
page. 

The  burnishing  is  produced  by  means  of  a  piece  of  polished 
fiiut  or  agate,  which  passes  rapidly  to  and  fro  over  the  surface  of 


ALA.JiBLlN(ji. 


I4;i 


View  or  the  burnishing  machine  in  action. 


BUH.MSIIINU. 


144  MARBLING. 


Operation  of  the  burnishing  machine.  The  bed.  Skill  required. 

• 

the  paper,  the  sheet  being  held  for  the  purpose  upon  a  sort  of  bed 
prepared  for  it  to  lie  upon,  on  a  very  solid  bench  or  table.  The 
burnisher,  as  is  shown  in  the  engraving,  is  attached  to  the  lower 
end  of  a  long  lever  that  descends  from  the  ceiling.  At  the  upper 
end  of  the  lever  is  a  joint,  by  means  of  which  the  lower  end  may 
be  moved  to  and  fro.  Near  the  lower  end  is  a  bar,  which  may  be 
seen  passing  oif  toward  the  window,  where  it  is  attached  to  a  crank 
on  the  outer  side  of  the  wheel.  When  the  axle  of  that  wheel  is 
put  in  motion  by  means  of  the  band  coming  down  from  above  and 
passing  over  the  pulleys — seeu  at  the  left-hand  end  of  the  axle — 
the  crank  is  turned,  and  the  bar  pulls  the  burnisher  to  and  fro 
very  rapidly  over  the  surface  of  the  paper. 

The  bed  on  which  the  paper  rests  while  undergoing  the  opera- 
tion is  a  block  of  wood  set  in  a  frame  that  is  screwed  to  the  bench. 
The  end  of  it  is  seen  in  the  engraving  under  the  sheet  of  paper. 
The  upper  surface  of  this  block  is  made  concave,  so  that  the  bur- 
nisher, in  moving  to  and  fro,  shall  always  be  in  contact  with  it. 
This  bed  is  not  absolutely  fixed,  but  is  susceptible  of  being  moved 
up  and  down,  so  as  to  press  with  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  force 
against  the  burnisher,  as  may  be  required.  This  pres.sure  is  reg- 
ulated by  means  of  a  strong  spring  connected  with  a  pedal  below. 

As  the  process  of  burnishing  goes  on,  the  operator  draws  the 
sheet  forward  by  a  very  slow  and  carefal  motion,  so  as  to  subject 
all  parts  of  it  in  succession  to  the  polishing  effect  of  the  friction. 
It  requires  considerable  skill  to  manage  the  sheet  so  as  to  produce 
upon  it  a  smooth  and  uniform  gloss.  The  operator,  in  holding  the 
sheet,  begins  in  the  middle  of  it,  and  works  first  toward  the  farther 


FINISHING.  145 


Cases  made  separately  for  books  bound  in  muslin. 


side  by  drawing  the  sheet  gently  forward  as  the  process  goes  on. 
She  then  turns  the  slicct,  and,  taking  the  liaU'  ah-eady  polisliod  to- 
ward her,  she  proceeds  witli  the  operation  on  the  other  half  in  the 
same  manner. 

Not  only  marble  ])aper,  but  colored  papers  of  all  kinds  are  bur- 
nished in  this  manner. 


CHAPTER  XYI. 

FINISHING. 

When  books  are  to  be  bound  in  muslin,  the  covers  of  them  are 
not  formed  upon  the  book  itself,  but  are  made  and  iinished  separ- 
ately, and  are  afterward  applied  to  the  book  and  properly  secured. 
These  covers,  before  they  are  applied  to  the  book,  are  called  cases. 
They  are  made  in  great  quantities  by  a  series  of  separate  process- 
es, each  workman  performing  one  process  upon  a  great  number  of 
covers,  and  then  passing  the  whole  stock  into  the  hands  of  anoth- 
er workman  for  the  next  process. 

Tlius  one  cuts  out  the  pasteboard  for  the  sides  of  the  cover  by 
means  of  the  great  shears  shown  in  a  previous  engraving.  The 
frame  to  which  the  shears  are  hxed  is  so  made  that  tlie  pasteboard 
is  measured  by  the  very  operation  of  cutting  it.  The  workman 
has  only  to  slide  the  sheet  along  as  far  as  it  will  go,  and  then  cut. 
lie  is  sure  to  cut  it  in  the  right  place  witliout  any  tliought  or  care. 
y>y  this  plan,  the  work  is  not  only  performed  more  rapidly  and 
easily,  but  also  far  more  exactly,  than  would  be  possible  by  any 
other  method  of  measuring.  The  sides  thus  cut,  tun,  are  ]trocisrly 
1.1  K 


146  FINISHING. 


Cutting  out  the  sides.  Description  of  the  process  or  gilding. 

of  tlie  same  size,  and  they  are  afterward  trimmed  so  square  and 
true  that,  when  they  are  piled  up  upon  each  other  on  the  table, 
they  seem  to  form,  as  it  were,  one  solid  block,  like  a  block  of  wood 
standing  on  end. 

Another  workman  cuts  out  the  muslin  or  the  leather,  whichever 
it  may  be,  that  the  book  is  to  be  covered  with.  This  operation  is 
performed  with  so  much  system,  and  with  such  excellent  arrange- 
ments for  facilitating  it,  that  the  work  is  done  with  astonishing  ra- 
pidity and  precision. 

Then  the  parts  of  the  case  are  put  together.  The  back,  connect- 
ing the  two  sides,  is  formed,  and  the  sides  are  covered  upon  the 
outside,  and  lined  within.  The  case  is  now  finished  as  to  its  form, 
and  it  is  taken  into  the  stamping-room  to  be  lettered,  and  also  em- 
bossed or  gilded  on  the  sides  or  back. 

In  the  engi'aving  on  the  opposite  page,  a  pile  of  covers  or  cases, 
such  as  are  used  for  the  bound  volumes  of  Harper's  Magazine,  or 
any  other  volume  of  that  size,  are  seen  lying  on  the  table  in  the 
foreground  on  the  left.  Other  piles  of  a  smaller  size  are  seen  upon 
the  tables,  where  the  girls  are  at  Avork  upon  them.  The  employ- 
ment of  these  girls- is  to  apply  the  gold  leaf  to  tlie  covers  in  the 
process  of  gilding  them  with  the  lettering  and  the  ornaments  of 
various  kinds  Avitli  which  the  backs  of  handsomely-.bound  books 
are  usually  embellished. 

The  manner  in  which  these  o-ilded  letters  and  ornaments  are 

o 

made  is  very  curious.  To  illustrate  and  explain  it,  I  will  take  a 
very  simple  case.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  book  is  to  have  its  title 
— one  single  word,  we  will  say — put  on  in  gilded  letters  on  the 


FlXlSHlMii. 


14< 


Mode  of  applying  (he  gold. 


View  orilic  tables 


Lack,  and  tliat  tliis  word  is  to  Lc  put  in  letters  of  such  a  size  that 
it  Mill  occui)y  a  space  about  half  an  inch  wide  directly  across  the 
hack  of  tlic  book,  at  a  proper  distance  from  the  top.  The  cover  is 
brought  to  the  table  seen  in  the  engravino;.  One  of  tiic  girls,  witli 
a  small  jiicce  of  sponge,  whicli  slie  has  dijipcd  jircviously  in  a  cer- 
tain preparation,  formed  chiefly  of  tlie  white  of  an  cgu',  of  whieli 


148  FlKlSHlNU. 


Detailed  account  of  the  process  of  gilding.  Mode  of  managing  the  gold. 

she  has  a  supply  before  her  ready  for  use,  moistens  that  part  of 
the  cover  where  the  lettering  is  to  come.  She  then  cuts  out  a 
strip  of  gold  leaf  half  an  inch  wide,  and  long  enough  to  extend 
across  the  back  of  the  book,  and  places  it  upon  the  part  which  she 
has  moistened.  It  adheres  a  little,  and  forms  a  gilded  stripe 
across  the  case  in  the  place  where  the  letters  should  appear. 

This  is  what  the  girls  are  doing  at  the  long  table  in  the  pre- 
ceding engraving.  They  are  putting  on  strips  of  gold  on  all  those 
parts  of  the  cases  of  the  books  where  the  letters  or  the  ornaments 
are  to  come.  They  keep  their  supplies  of  gold  leaf  in  the  drawers. 
They  have  an  apparatus,  of  the  form  of  a  little  stool,  on  the  table 
before  them,  to  work  upon,  and  they  use  a  variety  of  curious  im- 
plements for  dividing  and  moving  the  gold  leaf,  which  is  so  thin 
and  light  that  the  least  breath  of  wind  would  blow  it  away.  In- 
deed, so  great  is  the  danger  of  this,  that  they  are  obliged  to  have 
a  sort  of  screen  placed  before  them  on  the  table,  to  shelter  their 
work  from  the  accidental  draughts  which  might  be  produced  in  the 
room  by  an  open  window,  or  by  persons  Avalking  to  and  fro.  This 
screen  consists  of  some  transparent  texture  spread  over  a  frame. 
Thus  it  does  not  intercept  the  light,  while  yet  it  protects  the  work 
from  the  slightest  movement  of  the  air. 

But  let  us  return  to  the  cover,  which  was  to  be  gilded  with  its 
title  only  on  the  back.  When  it  has  had  placed  upon  it  the  strip 
of  leaf  large  enough  for  the  title,  it  is  taken  to  a  kind  of  press  to 
be  stamped.  In  this  press  is  what  is  called  a  die — that  is,  a  block 
of  metal  with  the  letters  of  the  title  of  the  book  cut  upon  it  in  re- 
lief, precisely  as  the  letters  are  cut  upon  the  ends  of  the  steel 


FINISHING.  14y 


The  die.  Effect  or  it.  Manner  or  fixing  the  gold. 

punches  used  in  type-founding,  as  has  already  been  described. 
This  die  is  made  hot  when  it  is  placed  in  the  press  by  means  of 
steam  circulating  in  concealed  channels  around  it.  The  case  is 
then  slipped  in,  and  it  is  placed  with  the  face  downward  under  it, 
and  that  instant  the  bed  of  the  press  rises  by  the  action  of  the 
machinery,  and  forces  the  case  against  the  die.  Every  thing  is  so 
adjusted  beforehand  that,  in  coming  up,  the  faces  of  the  letters  are 
brought  to  bear  with  great  force  upon  the  strip  of  gold  leaf  which 
had  previously  been  laid  upon  the  case.  There  are  two  distinct 
effects  produced  by  the  operation.  First,  the  substance  of  the 
leather  or  the  muslin  that  comes  directly  upon  the  face  of  the  let- 
ters in  the  die  is  compressed,  and  an  indentation  is  made — one 
not  very  deep,  it  is  true,  but  still  very  certain  and  distinct.  And, 
secondly,  the  heat  of  the  die  causes  the  gold  leaf  to  adhere  where 
it  touches — ^that  is,  where  the  faces  of  the  letters  come,  while  it  has 
no  effect  on  the  other  parts.  TJuis  that  portion  of  the  gold  leaf 
which  corresponds  with  the  letters  is  forced,  as  it  were,  into  in- 
dentations in  the  muslin  or  the  leather,  and  fixed  there  by  tiie  heat 
and  pressure  of  the  die,  while  all  the  rest  of  it  remains  at  liberty, 
and  may  be  wiped  away  by  a  cloth,  or  a  cushioned  brush  of  soft 
leather.  Tiie  cover,  when  it  is  first  witiidrawn  from  tiie  press, 
looks  very  much  as  it  did  when  it  went  in,  the  forms  of  the  letters 
being  at  first  scarcely  visible ;  but,  on  wiping  away  the  superflu- 
ous gold  leaf,  tlicy  come  out  fully  to  view,  distinctly  defined,  and 
extremely  brilliant  and  beautiful. 

One  would  at  first  suppose  that  tliis  must  be  a  very  wasteful 
mode  of  making  gilded  letters,  inasmuch  as  so  large  a  portion  of 


150  FINISHING. 


Apparent  waste.  The  drawer.  Press  for  stamping  and  embossing. 

the  leaf  first  applied  has  afterward  to  be  brushed  or  wiped  away. 
It  is  true  that  only  a  small  part  of  the  whole  strip  Avliich  the  giid 
first  puts  on  the  cover  remains  imprinted  there  by  the  action  of  the 
die,  for  the  space  lying  between  the  letters,  and  above  and  below 
them,  is  much  greater  than  tlaat  occupied  by  the  faces  of  the  let- 
ters themselves.  But  then  the  portion  of  the  leaf  that  is  removed 
is  by  no  means  wasted  or  lost.  The  wiping  away  of  the  super- 
fluous gold  is  performed  at  a  table  well  protected  from  currents  of 
air,  and  having  holes  in  it  that  communicate  Avith  a  drawer  below. 
The  gold  leaf  that  is  rubbed  off  from  the  covers  of  the  books  pass- 
es down  through  these  holes  into  the  drawer,  and  once  in  three 
months  it  is  sent  to  the  goldsmith  and  sold  for  old  gold.  So  great 
is  the  amount  of  gilding  done  at  this  table,  that  the  value  of  the 
rubbish,  as  it  might  be  called,  which  accumulates  here  every  three 
months  is  not  less  than  three  hundred  dollars,  making  twelve 
hundred  dollars  a  year. 

The  engraving  on  the  opposite  page  shows  the  form  of  the 
press  used  for  the  stamping  process  just  described.  It  is  made 
very  solid  and  massive,  as  the  force  of  the  pressure  which  is  often 
required  is  enormously  great.  There  is  a  massive  top,  which  is 
called  the  platen,  the  function  of  it  being  the  same  as  that  of  a 
platen  of  a  printing-press,  namely,  to  stand  against  the  pressure 
of  the  bed  rising  from  below.  This  top  i«  supported,  or  rather  held 
down,  by  four  wrought  iron  pillars,  two  of  which  are  seen  in  the 
engraving.  It  is  obvious  that  the  chief  purpose  of  these  pillars 
is  to  hold  the  platen  down  rather  than  to  hold  it  up,  for  when  the 
bed  below  rises  at  the  time  of  stamping  or  embossing  a  case,  it 


riNisiiiNc. 


151 


View  of  one  of  the  presses  used  Tor  stamping  and  embossing. 


EMOnsSINO    P 


152  l-JNISHINU. 


Necessity  of  great  strength  in  the  press.  Process  of  embossing 


lifts,  SO  to  speak,  with  prodigious  force  against  tlie  platen,  and  if 
the  cohinms  that  hold  it  Avere  not  very  strong,  and  the  bolts  and 
screws  by  Avhich  it  is  fastened  to  them  were  not  very  secure,  it 
would  be  forced  upward  bodily  and  broken  away. 

The  die  which  contains  tlie  letters  or  ornaments  that  are  to  be 
stamped  upon  the  case  is  placed  in  the  platen.  It  is  inserted  in 
a  receptacle  used  for  it  in  the  under  side  of  the  platen,  and  prop- 
erly secured  there.  There  is  a  circulation  of  steam  in  channels 
within  the  platen,  as  has  already  been  intimated,  which  serves  to 
keep  the  die  always  hot. 

Cases  can  be  stamped  in  these  p)rocesses  at  the  rate  of  sixteen 
impressions  a  minute — that  is,  as  fast  as  a  man  can  put  the  cases 
in  and  take  them  away ;  and  that  witliout  regard  to  the  amount 
of  gilding  that  may  be  required,  whether  it  be  only  a  single  line, 
or  whether  the  case  be  completely  covered. 

Sometimes  the  covers  of  books  are  embossed  with  ornamental 
figures  impressed  into  the  leather  or  muslin  without  gilding.  The 
patterns  for  this  embossing  are  cut  in  solid  brass  plates  of  the  size 
of  the  cover  to  which  they  are  to  be  applied.  A  great  number  of 
these  plates  are  seen  in  the  engraving,  on  the  shelves  at  the  end 
of  the  room. 

When  the  die  for  gilding,  or  the  side  plate,  as  the  case  may  be, 
is  fixed  in  its  proper  position  in  the  platen,  the  workman,  Avitli  a 
pile  of  cases  at  hand,  sets  the  machine  in  motion,  and  the  bed — that 
is,  the  solid  mass  of  iron  which  forms  the  central  part  of  the  block 
which  the  man's  hands  are  resting  upon,  is  forced  upward  by  means 
of  what  is  called  a  T^mee-jomt  below.      The  position  of  this  Icnee- 


llNlSlllNd.  15iJ 

Operation  of  a  knee  or  toggle  joint.  Great  force  exerted  by  it. 

joint  may  be  seen  in  the  engraving,  underneath  the  bed  of  the 
press.  This  sort  of  joint  is  often  used  in  presses.  It  is  some- 
times called  a  toggle  joint.  The  operation  of  it  may  be  illustrated 
in  this  way.  Suppose  a  man  to  stand  with  his  back  against  a 
wall,  and  then  to  bend  his  knees  a  little  forward.  Of  course,  by 
])ending  his  knees,  his  head  is  made  to  descend.  Imagine  now  that 
a  by-stander  pushed  his  knees  in,  back  to  their  place,  so  as  to 
straighten  his  legs.  His  head  will  be  forced  up  again.  It  Avouid 
be  forced  up,  too,  Avith  great  power — that  is,  provided  the  man  be 
made  of  iron,  and  with  no  joints  in  him  except  those  at  his  knees, 
and  if  they  are  bent  only  a  little.  It  is  true,  his  head  would  be 
forced  up  only  a  very  sliort  distance,  but  tlirougli  that  short  dis- 
tance it  would  rise  with  great  force. 

This  is  exactly  the  operation  of  a  knee  or  toggle  joint.  Look 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  press  in  the  engraving,  and  you  will  see 
the  iron  knees.  They  are  bent  a  little,  for  the  bed  of  the  press  is 
now  down.  A  man  is  just  putting  a  case  in.  In  a  moment  the 
knees  will  be  straightened  by  means  of  a  wheel  connected  with  a 
steam-engine  acting  on  a  case.  The  consequence  will  be,  that 
the  bed  will  be  forced  upward.  It  is  cm-ious,  too,  that  as  the  knees 
become  more  and  more  nearly  straightened,  the  force  witli  which 
the  bed  rises  becomes  more  and  more  powerful,  imtil  at  the  last 
instant,  when  the  knees  are  just  arriving  at  absolute  straightness, 
it  becomes  enormous.  This  ultimate  force  may,  moreover,  be  reg- 
ulated at  pleasure  by  bringing  tlic  platen  down  or  raising  it  up 
a  little.  The  platen,  and  consequently  the  die  or  side-plate  wliicli 
it  contains,  may  1)C  adjusted  in  this  way  by  means  of  an  apparatus 


154  II.NISHINC. 

Mode  of  regulating  the  pressure.  Books  bound  in  leather.  Mode  of  gilding  them. 

above.  There  is  a  horizontal  wheel  to  be  seen  at  the  top  of  the 
press,  which  is  connected  with  a  system  of  wheels  and  screws  so 
contrived  that  the  workman,  bj  stepping  up  upon  some  support, 
and  turning  this  wheel  one  way  or  the  other,  may  raise  or  depres.; 
the  platen  so  as  to  regulate  the  pressure  that  comes  upon  it  at 
Ills  will.  The  screws  hold  it  firmly  wherever  lie  sees  fit  to  place  it. 
There  are  two  gauges  on  the  bed  of  the  press,  one  at  tlie  side 
and  one  at  the  end,  whicli  regulate  the  position  of  the  case  when 
it  is  put  into  the  press,  and  cause  it  to  take  the  impression  in  pri'- 
cisely  the  right  manner. 

When  books  are  to  be  bound  in  leather,  they  are  finished  in  a 
different  way.  In  this  case,  the  bands  to  Avhich  the  sheets  are 
sewed  are  fastened  securely  to  the  sides  of  the  cases,  and  the  cases 
are  then  covered,  lined,  and  finished  while  attached  to  the  book. 
The  engraving  on  the  opposite  page  gives  a  view  of  the  room  where 
these  operations  are  performed.  It  is  called  the  finishing-room. 
The  gilding  upon  the  books  is  applied  by  hand,  though  tlie  gen- 
eral principle  of  the  process  is  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  those 
stamped  in  the  machine.  The  furnaces  seen  upon  the  tables  are 
used  for  heating  the  stamps  by  which  the  gilding  is  fixed.  The 
fire  in  these  furnaces  is  a  flame  of  gas  diftused  over  a  considerable 
surface  on  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  within.  The  manner  of  using 
the  stamps  in  gilding  the  backs  of  the  books  is  seen  by  the  posi- 
tion of  the  figure  in  the  foreground,  at  the  end  of  the  central  table. 


IIMSIIINC. 


lo.'. 


156  I'HK    DISTKIBUTIOX. 


Necessity  of  large  supplies  of  books  on  hand. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE     DISTKIBUTION. 

In  order  to  have  always  on  hand  a  sufficient  supply  of  copies 
of  tlie  many  hundreds  of  works  publislxed  by  the  house,  so  as  to 
he  able  promptly  to  till  the  orders  from  tlie  trade  as  they  come 
in,  very  extensive  store-rooms  are  required  to  contain  the  books. 
In  the  early  part  of  this  volume,  an  explanation  was  given  of  the 
situation  and  arrangement  of  the  bins — in  number  almost  a  thou- 
sand— in  which  the  supplies  of  finished  books  are  kept ;  that  is, 
those  bound,  complete,  ready  for  delivery.  But  these  are  not  by 
any  means  the  most  considerable  portion  of  the  stores  kept  on 
hand.  The  principal  part  of  the  edition  of  any  book  that  is  print- 
ed is  kept  in  a  partially  finished  state  in  respect  to  binding,  and 
is  then  completed  in  quantities  as  copies  may  be  required. 

The  view  on  the  following  page  represents  one  of  the  ware- 
rooms  where  this  unfinished  stock  is  stored.  It  is  situated  on 
one  of  the  upper  floors  of  the  Franklin  Square  building,  across  the 
court  from  the  sewing-room,  which  is  on  a  floor  nearly  correspond- 
ing to  it  in  the  Cliff"  Street  building.  The  sheets  of  each  new  edi- 
tion of  any  work,  after  being  dried,  pressed,  folded,  gathered,  and 
stitched  or  sewed,  so  as  to  be  ready  to  be  finished  at  very  short 
notice,  are  trundled  over  one  of  the  iron  bridges  tliat  leads  across 
the  court,  and  are  deposited  in  this  ware-room.  They  are  placed 
— the  sheets  of  each  work  by  themselves — in  bins,  similar  to  those 


THE    DISTKIBLTIUX. 


157 


The  stock-room. 


View  of  one  of  the  principal  avenues  in  it. 


THE  STOCK-BOOM. 


used  ill  the  warc-rooin.s  for  finished  work  below.  These  bins  are 
Luilt  up  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling,  and  stand  in  ranges,  divided 
by  passages  that  cross  each  otlicr  at  right  angles,  and  furnish  very 
convenient  access  to  every  portion  of  tlic  stores.  Tt  is  only  a  very 
small  part  of  the  room  that  is  shown  in  the  engraving.      There  arc 


158  THE    DISTKIBUTJUX. 


Store-rooms  for  unbound  books.  The  Magazine.  Immense  number  of  copies. 

two  principal  avenues,  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  long,  passing 
througli  it  from  end  to  end,  only  one  of  whicli  is  here  seen. 

As  fast  as  is  necessary,  the  unfinished  books  are  taken  from 
these  hins,  in  quantities  of  hundreds  or  thousands,  as  the  case 
may  be,  and  conveyed  across  the  bridge  again  to  the  bindery  to 
be  finished.  Tlien  they  are  sent  down  by  the  lioistway  to  tlie 
great  sales-room  below,  to  replenish  the  bins  assigned  to  them  there 
which  have  been  emptied,  or  nearly  emptied,  by  previous  sales. 

In  this  lower  store-room  is  performed  the  work  of  selecting  and 
packing  the  books  ordered  by  the  correspondents  of  the  house,  and 
sending  them  away.  Every  morning  a  large  pile  of  letters  comes 
in  from  the  mail  from  booksellers,  committee-men,  librarians,  di- 
rectors of  public  institutions,  teachers,  and  gentlemen  in  private  life, 
containing  lists  of  the  books  which  they  wish  the  house  to  forward 
to  them.  These  lists  are  handed  to  the  clerks,  who  proceed  to  col- 
lect the  books  required  for  each,  and  to  arrange  and  pack  them. 

One  of  the  principal  operations  of  this  department  is  the  monthly 
distribution  of  the  edition  of  the  jMagazine,  which  consists,  at  the 
present  time,  in  round  numbers,  of  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand 
copies.  Few  persons  have  any  idea  how  large  a  number  this  is 
as  applied  to  the  edition  of  a  book.  If  magazines  were  to  7'ai)i 
down,  and  a  man  had  only  to  pick  them  up  like  chips,  it  would 
take  him  a  fortnight  to  pick  up  the  copies  of  one  single  number, 
supposing  him  to  pick  up  one  every  three  seconds,  and  to  work 
ten  hours  a  day. 

A  portion  of  the  edition  of  the  ]\Iagazine,  and  also  of  the  Story 
Books,  are  sent  off  in  bales  and  boxes  to  booksellers  and  agents 


THE    DISTRIBUTION. 


159 


View  or  the  office  where  the  Magazines  and  Story  Books  are  mailed. 


THE    MAGAZINE    CORNCU. 


Avho  take  tliem  in  quantities.  Others  are  seat  to  individual  sub- 
scribers by  mail.  Tlie  office  shown  in  the  engravinfj,  -which  is 
situated  in  the  back  part  of  the  great  room  in  the  Franklin  Square 
building  that  contains  the  counting-room,  is  the  place  where  these 
copies  arc  addressed,  and  then  mailed  in  bags  sent  from  the  Post- 


ItiU  THE    DlSTlilJiUTlON. 


Authors  connected  with  the  Harper  Establishment.  Conclusion. 

office  to  receive  them.     Here,  too,  all  the  accounts  are  kept  both 
of  the  Story  Books  and  the  Magazine. 

The  authors,  whose  writings  the  proprietors  and  conductors  of 
this  establishment  bring  before  the  public  by  the  aid  of  the  im- 
mense mechanical  means  and  facilities  they  have  at  their  command, 
and  the  still  more  immense  business  organization  which  they  have 
built  up,  and  which  extends  its  ramifications  to  almost  every  city 
street  and  every  rural  village  or  mountain  hamlet  throughout  the 
land,  are  very  numerous,  and  they  occupy  every  variety  of  intel- 
lectual and  social  position.  There  are  classical  scholars  who  pur- 
sue their  studies  in  learned  libraries,  and  make  profound  research- 
es into  Greek  and  Roman  lore.  There  are  intrepid  travelers,  who 
follow  whales  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  or  lose  themselves  among  the 
fields  and  mountains  of  ice  in  the  Polar  Seas.  There  are  clergy- 
men, who  instruct  the  world  with  their  expositions  of  Scripture, 
and  of  moral  and  religious  truth;  and  statesmen,  who  discuss  ques- 
tions of  politics ;  and  novelists,  Avho  invent  ingenious  tales  to  fur- 
nish amusement  and  recreation  for  the  weary  and  the  solitary ;  and 
tourists,  who  give  accounts  of  their  tours ;  and  embassadors,  who 
relate  the  history  of  their  embassies ;  and  multitudes  besides.  The 
productions  of  all  these,  and  of  many  others,  come  into  tliis  vast  es- 
tablishment each  in  the  form  of  a  single  roll  of  obscure  and  seem- 
ingly useless  manuscript,  and  then,  a  few  weeks  afterward,  are  is- 
sued in  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  of  copies,  beautifully 
printed,  embellished,  and  bound,  to  instruct,  entertain,  and  cheer 
many  millions  of  readers. 

THE    END. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


APR   2  2   IBaii 
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